Editors: Mack Shelley, Mustafa Hilmi Colakoglu, Mustafa Pehlivan This book was typeset in 10/12 pt. Times New Roman, Italic, Bold and Bold Italic. Copyright © by ISRES Publishing All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, retrieval system, or any other means, without prior written permission of the publisher. International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE) Published by ISRES Publishing, International Society for Research in Education and Science (ISRES). Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN: 978-605-81654-1-0 Date of Issue: December 31, 2018 Address: Prof. Dr. Mack Shelley, Iowa State University, 509 Ross Hall, Ames, IA 50011-1204, U.S.A. E-mail: isresoffice@gmail.com www.isres.org Keynote & Special Session Speakers Dr. Mohammad Sarwar Asian Council of Science Editors, United Arab Emirates "IndexOne: Truly Asian - Proudly International" Dr. Tryfon Mavropalias University of Western Macedonia, Greece "The Greek Co-teaching Model" Dr. Erol Pehlivan Selcuk University "Significance of STEM implementations and Exploring its Benefits in Engineering" Dr. Siti Sarawati Johar UTHM University, Malaysia "Emotional Intelligence and Self-esteem" Keynote & Special Session Speakers Dr. Mustafa Hilmi Colakoglu Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education "How can STEM Approach be used in Discipline-based Education System?" Dr. Muhammad M. Zayyad Al-Qasemi Academic College of Education, Israel "Teacher Leadership for the 21st Century: the Power of Collaboration" Dr. Elena Lukianova Rudn-University, Russia "Telemedicine Technologies" Committees CONFERENCE PRESIDENT Dr. Mack SHELLEY - Iowa State University, United States Dr. Mustafa Hilmi COLAKOGLU - Ministry of National Education, Turkey Dr. Mustafa PEHLIVAN - Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey SCIENTIFIC BOARD Allan TARP - MATHeCADEMY, Denmark Altay FIRAT - Near East University, Cyprus Andrea DEBELJUH - University Juraj Dobrila of Pula, Croatia Brahim FERDI - Bechar University, Algeria Branislav POPOVIĆ - University of Kragujevac, Serbia Chalavadi SULOCHANA - Gulbarga University, India Dariga NURKESHEVA - Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan Elizabeth ADAMSON - Edinburgh Napier University, United Kingdom Farouq ALMEQDADI - Emirates College for Advanced Education (ECAE), U.A.E. Gordana SAVIC - University of Belgrade, Serbia Henry David KATNIYON - Federal College of Education, Pankshin, Plateau state, Nigeria Hsin-Chih WU - National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan Jessie BUSTILLOS - London Metropolitan University, United Kingdom Milica PAVKOV HRVOJEVIĆ - University of Novi Sad, Serbia Mohammad Sarwar - Scialert, Dubai, United Arab Emirates Morteza BARIN - Farhangiyan University of Iran, Iran Muteb ALQAHTANI - Rutgers University, United States Ognyan B. MANOLOV - European Polytechnic University, Bulgaria Sanaa AL-DELAIMY - Mosul University, Iraq Shynar BAIMAGANBETOVA - Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan Summer MOUALLEM - University of Central Lancashire, United Kingdom Tri Marhaeni PUDJI ASTUTI - Semarang State University, Indonesia Committees ORGANIZING COMMITTEE Aliya MUSTAFINA - Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan Ann D. THOMPSON - Iowa State University, U.S.A. Cemil AYDOGDU - Hacettepe University, Turkey Fatih Serdar YILDIRIM - Akdeniz University, Turkey Halil SNOPCE - South East European University, Macedonia Jacqueline T. MCDONNOUGH - Virginia Commonwealth University, U.S.A. Mariusz JAWORSKI - Medical University of Warsaw, Poland Mary M. CAPRARO - Texas A&M University, U.S.A. Mehmet OZASLAN - Gaziantep University, Turkey Mohammad SARWAR - Scialert, Dubai, United Arab Emirates Muhammad ZAYYAD - Al-Qasemi Academic College of Education, Israel Mustafa PEHLIVAN - Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey Natela DOGHONADZE - International Black Sea University, Georgia Natalija ACESKA - Ministry of Education and Science, Macedonia Ossi AUTIO - University of Helsinki, Finland S. Ahmet KIRAY - Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey Silvia MORARU - National High School Bucharest, Romania Participating Countries International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey INDEX Motivated Behavioral Choices of Young Technological Talents - From Adolescence to Career Success Ossi AUTIO……..………………...………………….……………………………………………..………………1 Civic Education in Greek Educational System: Empirical Approach in Schools of Central Macedonia of Greece Theodore CHADJIPANTELIS, Antonis PAPAOIKONOMOU…………….…………….......................................10 Mathematics Teachers' Usage of Inclusive Instructional Activities in Some Special Schools in Ibadan, Oyo State Adedeji TELLA……………………………………………….……..………..………………….....….….....…....20 Introducing the Internet of Things to Computer Science Students Elena KRELJA KURELOVIC, Jasminka TOMLJANOVIC, Dario KUKULJAN………..…..…..……..….………..30 The Art of Emotional Intelligence in Soft Skills: Generate the 1st Class Human Capital Siti Sarawati JOHAR, Zurina RAMLI……………………….……………………………………….……..….....36 Science Literacy for Citizenship: Bridging the Gap. A Delphi Study of Arab and Lebanese Experts Suzanne EL TAKACH, Zalpha AYOUBI……………………....….…….…...………………….…..……..……….43 Implementation of Teaching Skills Learned by Trained Teachers for Teaching Science Subjects at Secondary School level Shahida SAJJAD, ………………………………………………………………………………………….............……..63 Improving Higher Education Quality in Jordan using Mobile Technologies Dia ABUALNADI, Ahmed AL-SALAYMEH, Feda’ YOUSEF, Ghazi AL SUKKAR, Mohammed HAWA …………………………………………………………………………………………….....70 Bullying Against Children with Special Needs in Greek Schools.What Action Do Teachers Take? Tryfon MAVROPALIAS……………………………...…........................................................................................79 Evaluation of the Undergraduate Program in Higher Education: the case of the Science and Mathematics Department at the Faculty of Education, Lebanese University Suzanne EL TAKACH, Muhammad RAWAS, Mohammad DOKMAK……………………………………..……..87 A Functional Perspective on Gender Associated Patterns in Kurdish EFL University Students' Conversational Performance Barham Sattar ABDULRAHMAN………………….……………………………….………………….………..100 The Teaching of the CAD in the Curriculum of Graduation in Technology Ghezail ABDI, Habib ACHACHE.........................................................................................................................111 Using QR Codes for Improving the Educational Process of Students with Hearing Loss Dia ABUALNADI, Ahmed AL-SALAYMEH, Feda’ YOUSEF, Ghazi AL SUKKAR, Mohammed HAWA……..…116 The Opinions of Classroom Teachers about Robotics Applications Sibel ACISLI……………………………………………………………………..……………….……...............123 Micro:Bit Immplementation in ICT Education Melita MILIĆ, Dario KUKULJAN, Elena KRELJA KURELOVIĆ………………………………..……………128 The Impact of Secondary School Teachers’ Training Program on the Professional Development of In-Service Biology Teachers Eman SHAABAN, Imane ABOU ALI…………………………………….………………………………………134 The Role of Family Engagement in Students’ Science Learning in Qatari Schools Ziad SAID, Ahmad AL-AMADI……………………………………...…………...…………………….….…….142 Incidence, Consequences and Control of Students’ Unrest in Tertiary Institutions in Lagos State, Southwest Nigeria Olumuyiwa VIATONU, Olubusayo ASIKHIA, Folake FABINU, Abiodun ADEMOLA…………...………….....153 I International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey The Opinions of Middle School Students, High School Students, Pre-Service Science Teachers and Science Teachers about Robotic-Assisted Practices in Teaching Renewable Energy Sources Sibel ACISLI……………………………………..………………………………………………………………......163 Legibility of Neighborhood Park: A Case Study of Trabzon City Centre Doruk Gorkem OZKAN, Abdullah CIGDEM, Duygu AKYOL………………………..........................................170 Preparing Flood Victims for Emergency House Evacuation Farhad BALASH, Dayang AVANG HJ HAMID,……………… …………….……………………………..…..177 Urban Streets from the Perspetive of the Youth Tugba DUZENLI, Sema MUMCU, Elif Merve ALPAK………………………..………….………..…......………...184 Graphic Designer Profile and Professional Competence Analysis Mustafa KINIK, Mahmut Sami OZTURK…………………………………………………………...…………..192 The Committees in the Turkish Parliament: Existing Problems and Solutions after 2017 Constitutional Reform Fahri BAKIRCI…………………………………………………………………………....……………….…....198 Evaluate the Existing Political Oversight Role of Turkish Parliament over the Public Finance and in This Context Analyzed the New Turkish Presidential Government System Mustafa BICER ……………...…………………………………..……………………………………………...228 The Scenario of Emotional Intelligence, Self-Esteem and Organizational Commitment Siti Sarawati JOHAR……………...……………….……………..……………………………………………...239 Investigation of the Dissertations and Theses Regarding Pervasive Computing Games in Turkey Muhammet DEMIRBILEK, Suleyman EZDEMIR………………………………………………..……………...247 Examination of Studies Conducted On Mobile Apps Desinged For Educating Students with Special Needs in Turkey Muhammet DEMIRBILEK, Eda Naz KORKMAZ…………………………………………………………….....254 Pre-Service Teachers’ Views for Universities’ Social Media Use and Their Levels of Benefit from Social Media Regarding University Choice Mustafa KOC, Bahar ARIKAN…………… ……………………………………………….………………..…..261 Problems of Foreign Secondary School Students in Turkey: A Phenomenological Study Mustafa KOC, Canan ERDOGAN………………………………….…………………………………..……..…….267 Review of the Argumentation Oriented Studies in Conducted in Turkey between 2007 and 2017 for Science Teaching of Primary School Students Kevser BOZKURT, Kemal IZCI, ……………… ………………………………………..…………………...…272 Review of the Argumentation Oriented Studies in Conducted in Turkey between 2007 and 2017 for Science Teaching of Primary School Students Kevser BOZKURT, Neslihan BOYUNSUZ, S. Ahmet KIRAY,.,……………….……………….. ……...……….287 The Lexical Status of the Basic Morphemes Constituting the Verbs in Arabic Among Regular and Dyslexic Native Readers in the Age Group of 13-17: A Developmental Model Haneen WATTAD….……...….………………………………………………………………………....…...…..295 II The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 1-9 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Motivated Behavioral Choices of Young Technological Talents - From Adolescence to Career Success Ossi AUTIO University of Helsinki Abstract: Technical abilities are fundamental to human existence. At each stage within the cycle of life, humans continuously strive to acquire new skills or to refine existing ones in the hope that productivity and quality of life are enhanced. Despite the fact that skilled behavior underlines nearly every human activity, our understanding about the factors that contribute to the attainment of expertise in technology education is far from complete. Not to mention, that we do not really know what is needed in career success for technological professions. This article builds on earlier research that defined and assessed technical abilities among adolescents. The aim of the study was to examine determinants of technological competence and try to predict student potential for career success. It tracks the students whose technical abilities were assessed in a study twenty five years ago. The follow-up study was carried out as a qualitative case study. Although, we must be cautious about final conclusions because of the limited number of research subjects, the study shows that it is possible to predict student potential for career success in the technical professions. However, the process in making motivated behavioral choices in the area of technology seems to be much more complicated for technologically talented females than for males. Keywords: Motivated behavioral choices, Technological talent, Career success Introduction The aim of this study was to find out if it is possible to predict students’ potential for career success in technological professions by using the Expectancy-Value theory. In addition, this study examined how the best male and female students have progressed during last twenty five years. Are they working in technological area or did they end up in other professions? Another point of view was to determine the elements accounting for the participants’ motivated behavioral choices in the area of technology. The main research questions were as follows: 1. Is it possible to predict career success in technological professions? 2. What were the main elements in test participants’ motivated behavioral choices in the area of technology? The results from each participant interview are shown in a figure based on Eccles (2009) Expectancy Value Model of Motivated Behavioral Choice. The model indicates each person’s motivated behavioral choices in the area of technology during their life. These figures based on the expectancy value theory will be explained in more detail later. Motivated Behavioral Choices During the interviews, typical elements affecting motivated behavioral choices in the area of technology were identified. These were classified according to the Eccles (2009) Expectancy Value Model of Motivated Behavioral Choice. Theory can be used as a conceptual framework for understanding how youth come to choose and pursue a given career (Wigfield & Eccles, 1992; Eccles, 2008). According to Expectancy-Value Theory, students’ achievement related choices are mostly determined by two factors, expectancies for success, and - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey subjective task values. Expectancies refer to how confident an individual is in his or her ability to succeed in a task whereas task values refer to how important, useful, or enjoyable the individual perceives the task. Furthermore, the model conceptualizes the value an individual associates with a given career choice as based on complex web of influences deriving from personal characteristics and various social contexts (e.g. peer group, gender roles, parental expectations). The most recent model consists of several factors or themes including: a distal cultural milieu with the cultural stereotypes and behaviors of key socializers. In addition, individual’s perceptions of emerging self-knowledge is generating future goals and shaping self-confidence. Furthermore, individual characteristics and experiences are important while making the interpretations of previous experiences. These elements are later turned out to the expectation of success and into subjective task values. Finally based on the experiences in life and complicated decisions between all the elements in the model, the individuals are making motivated behavioral choices. Study Method Case study research excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research. Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships (Stake, 1995). It is correct that the case study is a detailed examination of a single example, but it is not true that a case study cannot provide reliable information about the broader class (Flyvbjerg, 2006). The research was carried out as a qualitative case study and the data was collected from individual theme interviews. The interviews were first tape-recorded and transcribed. Themes were identified and the portraits of each subject established. Later the data was analyzed using the content analysis methodology. The analysis was carried out by assessing which of the essential elements in the Expectancy Value Model contributed motivated behavioral choices in the area of technology during test subjects’ lives. These findings were later classified according to the themes and were reported in the conclusions. Prior to the interviews, the researcher had a short e-mail discussion with each test participant about the concept technological competence and about the Expectancy Value Model of Motivated Behavioral Choice. However, Expectancy Value Model was just a starting point and as the interviews were based on self-reports, there was no right or wrong answers in the conclusions. Study Participants The study group consisted of two male and two female. They were born in 1980 and 1982 and when tested for technological competence twenty five years ago as students they achieved the best results in boys’ and girls’ test groups. The definition of technological competence was based on Autio and Hansen (2002) who defined technological competence as an interrelationship between technical abilities in psychomotor, cognitive, and affective areas. A simplified model of technological competence is described in Figure 1. Figure 1. Technological competence 2 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey The test subjects were selected according to overall accomplishment in all three areas. In the original test group twenty five years ago comprising 267 participants. More information of the research and test instruments, etc. in the original study is available in Autio and Hansen (2002). According to the test results twenty five years ago, it was easy to conclude that the selected test subjects were technologically talented and what’s more they were definitely talented enough to pursue on a technological career. The researcher had no previous knowledge of the test subjects’ current employment status. Fortunately, the background of each test subject was somewhat different, but there were enough similarities in the elements behind their motivated behavioral choices in the area of technology to make some conclusions. The test participants were difficult to trace, but with the help of their old teachers, old school mates and the internet this was done after two months of investigation. The test participants were: Subject 1 - multi-talent with plenty of options. He was born 1980 in Helsinki which is the capital of Finland. His first school years were spent in a normal primary school, but at secondary and upper secondary level he studied at one of the highest ranked upper secondary schools in Finland. He lived with his parents and one younger brother. Both parents had earned Masters of Science in technology and both worked at the State Technical Research Centre. Many of his older relatives had also studied at the University of Technology. Subject 2 – from vocational school to engineering career. He was born in 1980 and spent his school years in the same village as Subject 1. Both were exposed to technology education in the same primary and secondary schools. Following secondary school, he moved to a larger city with approximately 100000 inhabitants to study in vocational school. He lived with his parents and had two elder brothers and two sisters. His father worked as a taxi driver, but was a main owner of a local bus company. His mother worked in a bank. Subject 3 – difficult choice - machine technology or an architect. She was born in 1982 and spent her school years in Helsinki area. She lived with her parents and a little sister. Her father had earned Master of Science in Technology (machine technology) and her mother was Master of Science in Economics and Business Administration. Her little sister was currently studying in Italy (bio information technology). Subject 4 – technology or childhood dream as veterinarian. She was born in 1982 and she spent all her school years in University training school in Helsinki area. She lived with her parents and sister. The family was just an ordinary Finnish family with no academic degrees. Her father was a janitor and her mother was a homemaker, whom occasionally worked in a food store. One of the male study participants had finished his studies at the University of Technology. However, in the beginning he was interested in several other areas as well and he could have chosen a number of other careers. The other male study participant was equally talented in technical matters; unfortunately he was not particularly interested in other school subjects while being in comprehensive school. So he began to study computers and automation technology in vocational school instead of continuing in a more academic direction. Both female study participants had also studied at the University of Technology. The first was quite sure of her decision of choosing a technology career already after secondary school, but the second had a lower self-concept related to technology and started her studies in the University of Technology a couple of years later. Results Each test participant’s educational path related to technology is presented in the next section. The descriptions of the educational paths were based on the Expectancy Value Model of Motivated Behavioral Choice. The model was first introduced to the test subjects by e-mail and then discussed within the theme interviews in more detail. The elements of the motivated behavioral choices of each test subject are described more precisely in Figures 2-5. As the results were based on self-reports no absolute value was given to the strength of the particular elements. Subject 1 - multi-talent with plenty of options Subject 1 finished upper secondary school in 1999 with good grades (overall 9.4 / 10.00). As most of his school mates had very ambitious career plans, he was planning studies in medicine as well. However, after compulsory military service he decided to study automation technology at the University of Technology. In 2007, he completed Master of Science in technology and began working for an international company which 3 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey manufactures hospital automation devices. He feels comfortable in his job, enjoys the innovative working atmosphere, and thinks that his technological competence will still improve in the future. Subject 1 had become acquainted with technology in early childhood through familiarity with Lego and radiocontrolled (RC) cars. His family was competent in technology and his mother in particular was very supportive, often fixing toys with the children. Subject 1’s motivation was based on a child’s curiosity and he wanted to know how toys worked. The teacher was also very competent and could create an open and atmosphere, while maintaining rational planning, investigation, implementation, and evaluation processes. It was easy to talk with the teacher, whose feedback was rewarding, and developed skills and technical thinking further. In upper secondary school Subject 1 had to concentrate more on academic subjects and was not at all sure that he would choose a technology-related profession in the future. He was interested in physics, chemistry, and mathematics, but still wanted to find a balance between theory and practice. Computers gave him a new chance to develop his technological competence without being too theoretical. This was one of the main reasons why he chose automation technology as his major subject at the University of Technology. Today he sees the inspiring and technically open environment of his work as the main factor in his development. As well, his good friends with a common interest in technology provide him with support and new ideas to develop his competence further. The elements behind Subject 1’s motivated behavioral choices are presented in Figure 2. Figure 2. Elements behind Subject 1’s motivated behavioral choices Subject 2 – from vocational school to engineering career Subject 2 finished secondary school in 1997. His grades were not particularly good (overall 7.3 / 10.00) and instead of choosing an academic career and upper secondary school, he began to study computers and automation technology in vocational school. After finishing in 2000, he did his compulsory military service where he had an opportunity to work with optical cables and computers. He also became interested in the mechanics of tanks and other vehicles. He began his studies in automation technology in polytechnics and in 2005 he graduated as an engineer and started working in an engineering office as an electrical wiring designer. In his current post in an international mining and construction company - he feels comfortable and enjoys the innovative working atmosphere. Subject 2 had become familiar with technology in early childhood, using Lego and emulating his elder brothers. There was plenty of stimulation at home. His father had good facilities for working on cars, tools of all kinds, and available machines. At least he thinks, there was no significant increase in his competence during primary school as he had seen his elder brothers working with real cars, there was nothing interesting in making wooden toys. In secondary school, however, electronics in particular provided him a challenge and he generally felt 4 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey much better as he had more freedom and his choices were respected by the teacher; this was not the case with several other school subjects. Subject 2 was gifted with his hands so he could concretely witness his own development in the products he produced (e.g. an infrared light gate and metal detector). He felt comfortable in technology education classes, but his competence developed even more through his hobbies than through school. When he was older and more skillful his two elder brothers allowed him to repair cars with them as a respected co-worker and not just a pain in the neck. After finishing secondary school Subject 2 went on to study in vocational school. This presented him with a new kind of challenge as he could concentrate on areas of special interest and develop his technological talent. Later his competence in technology was developed by his studies in automation technology. Although he was not especially good in several school subjects during his earlier school years he graduated from polytechnic school near the top. In his current post in an international company, he feels he could have learned more languages at school, but his choice of moving straight into vocational school was the best decision in terms of his talent and interests. According to him, how his technological competence develops in the future will depend on interesting and challenging future projects. The elements behind Subject 2’s motivated behavioral choices are presented in Figure 3. Figure 3. Elements behind Subject 2’s motivated behavioral choices Subject 3 – difficult choice - machine technology or an architect Subject 3 finished school in 2001 with good grades (average of all school subjects over 9.0 / 10.00). After finishing upper secondary school, she started to study machine technology at the University of Technology. However, after five years she changed her major to Architect. Currently, she is working in an architect office and having a couple of years to finish her degree. Subject 3 had become familiar with technology in early childhood, using Lego but she played with Barbie as well. Subject 3 responded positively to technology education: already early in comprehensive school and she was interested in how things work in general, but any products were not especially interesting. The teacher was capable although the test subject thought that he was a little bit frightening for a small girl. Furthermore, she had no friends with the same interest area to join her in technology education lessons. His father was a good role model, but she did not get much support for her technological talent as father was not at home too often because of his work. In any case, the support from her main socializers was limited and in upper secondary school she noticed her technological talent mainly because he was good in mathematics, not because of her accomplishment in technology. 5 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Yet she received the best encouragement from being able to understand how things work in everyday life. Her self-confidence in technology was high and actually she did not need much support as she felt comfortable in the technological world. While her later studies in machine technology she got more experiences in real life technological environment. She became acquainted with welding and making concrete elements. She felt comfortable but noticed that her skills were limited at least when compared with other students who had much more experience from the technological world during their hobbies. Anyway she thought that her competence in technology developed but she had no passion for any special phenomena in technology. Furthermore, she had no technologically related hobbies to develop her competence further. In the long term, to study machine technology seemed to be meaningless to her future. Because of this, she decided to change her major and started studying to be an architect. As she was a woman of diverse talent, she felt this area much more rewarding to herself. She could fulfill her technological interest with different points of view: design, different materials, weather conditions and sociological elements. As she had finally found a technological area that suits her talent, she is willing to accept 3-4 years of more studies and even lower salary. Her choice corroborates with the idea that women seem more likely than men to be involved in, and to value, competence in several activities simultaneously (Baruch, Barnett & Rivers, 1983). The elements accounting for Subject 3’s motivated behavioral choices are described in Figure 4. Figure 4. Elements behind Subject 3’s motivated behavioral choices Subject 4 – technology or childhood dream as veterinarian Subject 4 finished school in University training school 2001. The school was one of the highest ranked upper secondary schools in Finland. She was good in several school subjects and graduated with good grades (average of all school subjects about 9,3 / 10.00). After finishing upper secondary school, she started to study computer science 2002 in vocational high school. However, as the studies were not as practical as she expected, she found out quite soon that this was not what she wanted to do for the rest of her working life. In the year 2003 she changed to study environmental technology in a smaller town close to Helsinki area in vocational high school. She felt comfortable in her studies and noticed her technological talent and finally she had enough selfconfidence to take part in the qualification exam of technological University in Helsinki. In the year 2004 she started to study material technology in the technological University. Currently as single mother she has had some breaks in her studies, but she thinks she could graduate as a Master of Science in Technology in 1-2 years. However, she still wonders that her life as a single mother would be much easier if working as a veterinarian, which was her childhood dream. Since her early childhood Subject 4 has been involved in technological area as her father always made renovations or was working with cars. Fortunately, she was the favorite girl of her father and she could join him in all the work he was doing as a janitor. Subject 5 also had an opportunity to take some extra technology education lessons while studying in upper secondary school; especially she enjoyed the internal combustion engine course. The teacher was encouraging and like-minded and she thought that her self-confidence grew up 6 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey when she could show the boys that her skills and knowledge in technological area were remarkable. In addition, she has always felt comfortable in analytical thinking required in technological area. However, she has never had any specific aims or specific hobbies regarding to technology. To develop her technological competence further she thinks that she still needs continuous encouragement as her self-confidence in real life is still limited. Currently, she is in the middle of hard decisions. As a single mother her life could be much simpler while working as a veterinarian. She thinks that she could organize her daily routines much easier by having a private practice. On the other hand, she could finish her studies in material technology and graduate as a Master of Science in Technology in 1-2 years. Although she thinks that her ability suits well in her current study area, she knows that in technological area a diploma is not enough - updated knowledge is required all the time. While working as a veterinarian as much updating training is not needed. Her choice is consistent with the statement that mathematically talented woman go into the biological and medical sciences instead of physical sciences and engineering (Vida & Eccles, 2003). The elements accounting for Subject 4’s motivated behavioral choices are described in Figure 5. Figure 5. Elements behind Subject 4’s motivated behavioral choices Discussion This study tried to find out: Did technologically talented males and females end up in technological careers? The research showed that both test participants were currently studying or had finished their studies in Technological University. Based on this finding, we can assume that it is possible to predict student potential for career in technologically related professions. However, the process in making motivated behavioral choices in the area of technology seems to be much more complicated for technologically talented females than for male. Female and male first year students are equally likely to have taken and earned high grades in the prerequisite math and science classes in high school and to have confidence in their math and science abilities (Brainard & Carlin, 1998; Vogt, Hocevar & Hagedorn, 2007). Hence, in this study the main difference seemed to be that technologically talented female assessed her technological abilities lower than male with same achievements and held her higher standard believing that she had to be exceptionally successful in technological field. This seems to be common phenomena in other technological subjects as well as can be conducted from Hill, Corbett and St.Rose (2010). Another distinguishing element was the support from main socializers in the field of technology as female test participant reported limited support from parents, teachers or friends. Adolescents are especially concerned with peer relationship and may be in special need of close adult relationship outside of the home (Eccles, 2008). Reeve, Bolt, and Cai (1999) have shown that teachers who support students’ autonomy in decision-making create more intrinsic motivation than those who intend to control their students. Support of autonomy is evident when an authority figure respects and takes the subordinate’s perspective, promotes choices, and encourages 7 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey decision-making (Ratelle, Larose, Guay, & Senecal, 2005). Furthermore, parents, teachers and peers tell people what they are good at or not good at with very little information on which to base such conclusions (Eccles, 2009). Closely related to the effect of main socializers seems to be social networking. With fewer friends in the same interest area technologically talented females had limited supportive relationships. Prior research states that increase in social networking is predictive of increased job search intensity and many of the contacts assist career-directed behavior (Mortimer, Zimmer-Gembeck, Holmes & Shanahan, 2002). Furthermore, supportive relationships have been shown to facilitate adolescents’ career exploration (Kracke, 2002). Thus social connections can either directly support career entry, or play an important role by pointing out a feasible path toward career attainment that makes an individual better prepared to choose their career and establish an effective plan toward establishing that career (Shane & Heckenhausen, 2012). The next study question was: What were the main elements in test participants’ motivated behavioral choices in the area of technology? According to Eccles (2009) the kinds of educational and vocational decisions that might underlie differences in participation in physical science and engineering would be most directly influenced by individuals’ expectations for success and the importance or value individuals attach to the various options they see as available. In this study, it was seen that many elements have an influence on the motivated behavioral choices in the area of technology already long before the test participants consider expectations for success or give value to the options they see as available. Consistent with the most recent simplified version of the Expectancy value model of motivated behavioral choices (Eccles, 2009); cultural milieu, individual characteristics and previous experiences seemed to be the main elements in the beginning of the process in motivated behavioral choices. If these elements are not in balance, the individuals’ do not actively, or consciously, consider the full range of objectively available options in making their selections. What’s more, many options are never considered because the individual is unaware of their existence or the individuals think these options are not realistically available to them (Eccles, 2008). In the measurement of technical abilities twenty years ago the test participants were found to have technological talent and it was easy to conclude that the selected test subjects’ individual characteristics were suitable for a technological career. According to Byman (2002), students usually prefer and choose subjects and tasks, in which they are proficient and can show their competence. In addition, Eccles (2009) predicts that people select those activities for which they feel most efficacious or for which they have the highest expectations for success. Furthermore, Betz and Hackett (1986) demonstrated a link between the ratings of personal efficacy in various academic subjects and career choice. In addition, all study participants had an opportunity to join technology education lessons in a school with advanced technology education curriculum. Although, the curriculum was not always optimal when providing technology for young girls, all test participants had experiences in the field of technology and were at least aware of the existence to consider this option as available. What’s more, the schools were clearly aware of the gender role and cultural stereotypes. During the interviews, none of the test participants mentioned these elements as negative features. Vice versa all of them mentioned that they had positive feedback about their mathematical talent and they were not stereotyped as nerds or as a people with little direct human relevance. Conclusions In this study, the male and female student who had the best overall results in the measurement of technical abilities twenty five years ago were followed. Due to the long timeline, the study had obvious limitations: the research group was small and we can’t be sure how well the participants remembered their pasts or did the researcher misunderstand some of the details during the interviews and in any case the self-reports are always quite subjective. In addition, the real action in making motivated behavioral choices is a much more complicated process than we can describe with a single figure. It is easy to conclude that most of the differences between male and female can be explained by the support from the main socializers. Unfortunately, this seems not to be the whole picture. Most important elements that affected male participants’ career decisions were technological talent, curiosity, interest and intellectual challenge. Other than talent, were not mentioned during the interview of the best female and it was clearly seen that their interest was restricted in everyday technology not in special areas. Technology-related hobbies (e.g. Lego, computers, cars, and electronics) were definitely another very important element between male and female. It is quite obvious that technology related hobbies which were started early in the childhood had a positive effect on technological talent which for its part generated more interest and curiosity on technology related activities. After a while these adolescents had also much better self-confidence in technological matters. Obviously this helped them to stay committed to a goal despite distractions and unexpected difficulties. In the 8 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey end it was much easier to make motivated behavioral choices. In other words as stated in Shane and Heckenhausen (2012) career-related personal control beliefs in primary control-contingent casual factors will lead an individual to extend motivational engagement to pursue career-related goals. Another fact seems to be that technologically talented females are more likely than men to be involved in, and to value, competence in several activities simultaneously (Baruch, Barnett & Rivers, 1983) and that mathematically talented woman go into the biological and medical sciences instead of physical sciences and engineering (Vida & Eccles, 2003). Hence, the process in making motivated behavioral choices in the area of technology seems to be more complicated for technologically talented females than for males. References Autio, O. & Hansen, R. (2002). Defining and Measuring Technical Thinking: Students’ Technical Abilities in Finnish Comprehensive Schools. Journal of Technology Education, 14 (1), 5-19. Baruch, G., Barnett, R. & Rivers, C. (1983). Life prints. New York: McGraw-Hill. Betz, N. & Hackett, G. (1986). Application of self-efficacy theory to understanding career choice behavior. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 4, 279-289. Brainard, S. G. & Carlin, L. (1998). A six-year longitudinal study of undergraduate women in engineering and science. Journal of Engineering Education, 87(4), 369–375. Byman, R. (2002). Voiko motivaatiota opettaa? [Can we teach motivation?]. In Kansanen, P. & Uusikylä, K. (Eds.) Luovuutta, motivaatiota, tunteita (25-41). Jyväskylä: Gummerus. Eccles, J. (2008). Agency and Structure in Human Development. Research in Human Development 5 (4), 231243. Eccles, J. (2009). Who Am I and What Am I Going to Do With My Life? Personal and Collective Identities as Motivators of Action. Educational Psychologist 44(2), 78-89. Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study. Research Qualitative Inquiry 2006 (12), 219245. Hill, A., Corbett, C. & St.Rose, A. (2010). Why So Few? Women in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. AAUW: Washington. Kracke, B. (2002). The role of personality, parents and peers in adolescents’ career exploration. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 19-30.. Mortimer. J., Zimmer-Gembeck. M., Holmes, M. & Shanahan, M. (2002). The process of occupational decision making: Patterns during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Vocational Behvior, 61(3), 439-465. Ratelle, C.F., Larose, S., Guay, F. & Senecal, C. (2005). Perceptions of parental involvement and support predictors of college students’ persistence in a science curriculum. Journal of Family Psychology 19, 286-293. Reeve, J., Bolt, E., & Cai, Y. (1999). Autonomy-supportive teachers: How they teach and motivate students. Journal of Educational Psychology 91, 537-548. Shane, J. & Heckenhausen, J. (2012). Career-related goal pursuit among post high school youth. Motivation and Emotion, 36(2), 159-169. Stake, R. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. California: Sage Publications. Vida, M. & Eccles, J. (2003). Gender differences in college major and occupational choices. In Eccles, J. (2008) Agency and Structure in Human Development. Research in Human Development 5 (4), 231-243. Vogt, C. M., Hocevar, D., & Hagedorn, L. S. (2007). A social cognitive construct validation: Determining women’s and men’s success in engineering programs. The Journal of Higher Education, 78(3), 337–64. Wigfield, A. & Eccles, J. (1992). The development of achievement task values: A theoretical analysis. Devel. Rew. 12, 265-31 Author Information Ossi Autio University of Helsinki PL 8 (Siltavuorenpenger 10) 00014 Helsingin yliopisto Finland Contact e mail:ossi.autio@helsinki.fi 9 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 10-19 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Civic Education in Greek Educational System: Empirical Approach in Schools of Central Macedonia of Greece Theodore CHADJIPANTELIS Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Antonis PAPAOIKONOMOU Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Abstract: Politicization is the process by which norms, values and behaviors are learned; Easton and Dennis (1980) refer to "developmental processes by which individuals are socialized politically" (p.7) while Dawsom and Prewitt (1969) refer to “the development process with which the citizen matures politically"(p. 71). Similarly, Rush and Althoff (1971) consider that political socialization as "the process that results in the acquisition of all the politically oriented experiences the individual needs. These experiences are not only political in the narrow sense, but they are relevant because they shape their political behavior "(p. 3). Scholars, however, question the way in which young people acquire these values in schools and elsewhere, as well as whether these values are real values for young people (Gimpel, Lay, & Schuknecht, 2003). What is generally known is that at some point in time a person will be integrated into a given political ideology or value. This view of political socialization overlooks the idiosyncratic personal development of the new man (Dahlgren, 2009). This paper seeks to outline the degree of effectiveness of civic education in Greek public schools. Civic education effectiveness was measured by students' knowledge of eight variables related to issues of everyday politics. The variables concerned pupils' views on the political system in Greece, their knowledge of political system name, their knowledge of the way of election of the president of democracy, the time of each government election, the right to vote, who is President of Democracy and who the Minister of Education. Finally, the students were asked about the political space in which they integrate themselves. In addition, the effect of factors on the above variables was also examined, such as urbanity, gender and grade. The results of the survey include the fact that there is statistically significant difference between genders and the political space in which they integrate themselves. Also, the political space influences the performance grade, given the fact that students who belong to anarchist space have the lowest grade in the previous school year. Our analysis of political socialization is based on the assumption that next to a rational choice utilitarian process, which guides us in matters of party preference and voting behavior, lays a less-than-rational cognitive process of moral decisions, which is based on definite notions of good and evil. This analysis allowed us to capture visually these discourses in the form of “semantic maps.” Keywords: Civic education, Politicization, Political knowledge Introducing the Concept of Political Socialization The political socialization (politicization) attracted the attention of social scientists because it was considered that it could explain the function of political institutions and procedures. Many definitions have been proposed: According to Greenstein (1968) and Calavita (2005) the term refers to a) the acquisition of norms that dominate in the society and b) to the political learning of any kind. Having such a large width of criteria, it is very hard to be given a definition which would be able to include everything. Greenstein distinguishes between specific and general definitions of political socialization. According to him, the definition that best describes political socialization is as follows: Political socialization is “…the intentional implantation of the political information, the values and the practices by institutions which are assigned for this responsibility; also, political socialization refers to the political learning, formal and informal, intentional and not, in every stage of life, - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey including not only what has been defined as political learning but also of politically relevant characteristics of personality” (Greenstein, 1970: 54). Rush & Althoff (1971: 13-14) define political socialization as “the procedure with which the individual familiarizes himself/ herself with the political system and deter-mines in this way his convictions about politics and political phenomena. It includes the examination of social, economic and cultural environment of a society and its impact on the individual and his/her political attitudes and values. The political socialization is the most important connection between the social and political systems, but it can be quite different from the one system to the other”. According to Sigel (1989: xii), “the political socialization refers to the procedure with which the individuals learn to adopt the norms, the values, the attitudes and the behaviors that are largely accepted from the existing systems. This kind of learning however, includes much more than the acquisition of the knowledge of political norms of the society as well as and much more than the credible application of these political actions; it suggests also that the individual will be familiar with these norms and behaviors – will internalize them – in a way that they look to him/her just and moral”. Patrick (1977: 92) states that political socialization deals with experiences that aim at the formation of human actions supporting social and cultural order. All the previous definitions have two common characteristics: at first, they have defined political socialization as the procedure with which norms, values and behaviors are learnt by the individuals; Easton & Dennis refer to “the developmental procedures with which individuals socialized politically” (1980: 7) whereas Dawsom & Prewitt refer to “the developmental procedure with which the citizen matures politically” (1969: 71). Similarly, Rush & Althoff (1971: 3) consider political socialization as “the procedure which results the elaboration of the personality of the individual so as to obtain all the political oriented experiences that he ought to. These experiences are not only political but they are considered relevant because they form his/her political behavior”. Scholars however, question the way with which young people obtain these values; also, they put into consideration the assumption that these values are real for the youngsters. What is generally known, is the fact that in a specific time an individual will join a given political ideology and will accept its values and norms. This consideration of political socialization overlooks the idiosyncratic and personal development of the young individual (Dahlgren, 2009). Therefore, there is the need for knowledge of the idiosyncrasy of the individual; the full frame of behavior for the study of political socialization is not necessary the study of conformation and of maintenance of the status quo (Conover, 1991· Colby, Beaumont, Ehrlich, & Corngold, 2007). The second characteristic of the definitions of political socialization is the emphasis on its instrumental character aiming at the formation of a conventional frame in which new man will be part of, given the fact that the existing status quo has to be reproduced and at the same time underestimates the abilities of the youngsters to renovate and to modify political learning. Rush & Althoff (1971: 30) state that “political socialization is characterized by a complex network of knowledge, values and attitudes which are conveyed among the individuals and the groups within a given political system, resulting in the contribution of a set of experiences that are inter-weaved around the personality of an individual aiming at the formation of political behavior”. The scholars that give emphasis on this point use terms like “cultural communication”, “adoption of cultural norms” etc. Langton (1973: 4) poses it differently: “The political socialization in its wider conception refers to the way with which society transmits its political culture from one generation to the other”. The procedure of socialization influences every kind of social group and is connected with every type of social relation. It is considered by the scholars as one of the most important processes of systemic survival. As Almond puts it (1970: 27): “All the political systems tend to perpetuate their culture and their structures as time goes by and they succeed in this task through socialization procedure by the primordial and the secondary institutions through which new man is led to maturation”. It cannot be stated that there is a unique theory of political socialization, even though that there are generally three approaches: the first and maybe the dominating one comes from the assumption that the attitudes are learnt in a young age and are especially resistant; they are considered also determining factors of prediction of political stances in the adult life of the individual (Dawson & Prewitt, 1969· Easton & Dennis, 1969· Gimpel, Lay, & Schuknecht, 2003). This approach has an important influence on the political convictions that are obtained in childhood and in the structure of personality which is created this period and which, even though it is not visible, determines permanent orientations in politics and in the choices of the individual when he/ she comes to adolescence. 11 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey In the other side of theoretical spectrum, it is assumed that the political orientation of the individual can be subject to many differentiations and modifications during his/ her life, provided that specific motives are given (Hahn, 1998· Hart & Fegley, 1995). This approach puts forward the point of view that during adult life the individual contacts with a multitude of new facts and events, new experiences and responsibilities, as well as with changes of its social position. Changes are also observed in his/ her biological condition. All the above have a determining impact on the socializing process. Some aspects of socialization can be based on values and attitudes that have been obtained in childhood, in other case some other aspects are created de novo the moments that no socialization process takes place. The third theoretical approach stresses the importance of different generations on individual attitudes during adult life (Harwood & Creighton, 1993· Inglehart, 1990). This approach attributes an important role on events that form the attitudes, considering that these events will be interpreted differently by the age groups which share common values and points of view in the framework of their educational infrastructure. The age in which this specific event took place plays also important role, as well as the reaction of peer groups in this event. As a conclusion, political socialization describes the procedure through which the individual, obtaining his/ her experiences from the childhood until the adult life, learns to develop political orientations, to form attitudes and to express moods about the political phenomena and procedures. The main purpose of political socialization is the acquisition on behalf of the individual of the reactions, the knowledge and the evaluation of the political phenomenon. It is the joint between the individual and the political system, which can contribute to a political culture sometimes towards the direction of political stability and sometimes towards the evolution of the existing culture. One of the most important factor of this process is school socialization and especially civic education which provides youngsters with the necessary cognitive equipment to obtain their political identity. Civic Education in Greece In Greece particular emphasis is given in civic education as a procedure of youngster’s political socialization. The obligatory educational system in Greece comprises of two major levels: primary and secondary level. Each one consists of six classes (the last two classes of secondary educational level are more or less a preparatory step for university entrance). Secondary education level has two sub-levels: gymnasium and lyceum (each one has three classes). Civic education begins at the last two classes of primary level – one hour every week. In the third grade of secondary education level pupils are taught Social and Political Education for two hours per week. In the first class of lyceum students are taught Civic education for three hours per week and the same goes on in the second class. There are also specific directions that students should choose when they finish the second class. If humanities are chosen, then the student attends a subject that is called Basic principles of social sciences. In 2018 a new subject is included in the curriculum of the second class of lyceum which is called Modern world: citizen and democracy. In the last class of lyceum students are taught History of social sciences and Sociology (the last subject replaced Latin as the major subject – together with three others – for the university entrance), a fact that shows a turning point in Greek educational policy as far as politicization is concerned. Aim of the Research The theoretical frame of political socialization that was examined above was used to examine the level of political knowledge of Greek adolescent students, that is civic education effectiveness. Student political knowledge was delineated using five different variables: • pupils' views on the political system in Greece, • their knowledge of political system name, • their knowledge of the way of election of the president of democracy, • the time of each government election, • the right to vote, • who is President of Democracy and • who the Minister of Education. Finally, the students were asked about the political space in which they integrate themselves. These variables are connected with familiar models of analyzing politicization that were used in previous researches (Mussen & Warren, 1970: 277· Milner, 2002). Also, influences were examined between these 12 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey variables and independent factors as the gender of the students, their performance in the previous class, their age etc. Methodology of Research For the examining of the researching problem, survey was considered as the most appropriate method which, despite its limitations, is considered more advantageous for the purpose of participating a large number of secondary education pupils from central Macedonia (Metaxas, 1976∙ Marshall, 1998∙ Gotovos, 1996, 2004). Schools from the prefectures of Katerini and Thessaloniki were chosen so as to be presented the pupils’ points of view from urban, semi-urban and rural areas. The questionnaire of this research was based on two previous researches that were conducted for similar reasons. The first is the research that was conducted by Michalis Kelpanidis in 2012 and concerned the examining of pupils’ points of view about sit-ins (Kelpanides, 2012). The second is a research conducted by Staurakakis and Demertzis about the youth and their attitudes on different issues of their daily life (Demertzis & Stayrakakis, 2008). At first, a pretest research was conducted in a lyceum class so as to ascertain pupils’ attitude towards the questionnaire and to calculate the time that was needed in order for the pupils to fill it. In general, the results showed a good reception while time did not exceed 25 minutes. Once the research was approved by Institute of Educational Policy and instructions were given, letters were sent to pupils’ parents so as to approve the participation of the pupils to the research. It has to be noted that all parents gave their consent without any objections. Τhe original sample consisted of 2800 students from 16 Greek High Schools. The final sample used for data analysis included the responses of 2382 students, obtained during the academic year 2016-17. With regard to gender, 1110 were men and 1252 women. As far as the gender of the students the following chart presents the fact that 53,01% were female and 46,99% were male. According to Hellenic Statistical Authority the same percentage applies more or less to the Greek student population. Chart 1. The gender of the research sample Another useful descriptive data is the class in which the students belong. It was mentioned previously that this research took place in schools of central Macedonia in Greece and in particular in schools of the prefectures of Katerini and Thessaloniki. Only senior high schools took part due to the fact that the sit-ins are more frequent in these types of schools. This assumption does not exclude the fact that sit-ins take place also in junior high schools but for the sake of analysis only senior high schools were chosen. The table below show that 40,1% were students from first grade of high school, whereas 33,6% from second grade and 26,2% from third grade. 13 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 1. Student number and percentage regarding class First class (A) Frequency 918 Valid Percent 38,5 770 Second class (B) 32,3 694 Third class (G) Total 2382 29,1 100,0 Results Chi square analysis At first a crosstab analysis was performed in order to present some simple correlations between independent variables such as sex and grade. Also chi square method was used to correlate political knowledge with variables concerning students’ opinion about schools’ sit-ins, about their participation in the sit-ins, about their participation in demonstrations in general and about their political orientations. At first no statistical significance was observed between student sex and political knowledge. On the other hand, students’ grade seems to correlate significantly with political knowledge. More specifically, students with high grade in the previous class seem to know more about political matters since 83,9% of them answered correctly to almost all the questions. It has to be noted that students with low marks are not totally uninterested in political matters since a significant 73% of them answered correctly to the questions. The following table shows the percentages analytically: Table 2. Correlation between political knowledge and school performance Political Knowledge 2 3 40a 200a 649b 4.5% 22.5% 73.0% 23a, b 103b 613a 3.1% 13.9% 82.9% 1 grade Low marks (up to 15) Medium mark (1517) High mark (17-20) Total Count % within grade Count % within grade Count % within grade Count % within grade 11a 1.6% 74 3.2% 38.992a Pearson Chi-Square 98a 14.5% 401 17.4% Df=4 567b 83.9% 1829 79.4% P=.000 Total 889 100.0% 739 100.0% 676 100.0% 2304 100.0% Each subscript letter denotes a subset of pol_know_new categories whose columproportions do not differ significantly from each other at the ,05 level. It has to be stated that a usual phenomenon in Greece every autumn is schools’ sit-ins by students. Many researches were carried out in order to search for the reasons why students act in this way. In our research we correlated political knowledge with sit-in participation. The findings showed that there is a significant statistical relation but in the opposite direction. That is, 82,3% of the students who answered correctly to almost all the questions about political matters in Greece did not participate in the sit-ins. The corresponding percentage of the students who participated were 77,8% (x2=7.156, df=2, p=0,028). Relevant with the previous finding is the next correlation between the opinion about the sit-ins and the political knowledge: students who believe that sit-ins are a completely acceptable way of political demonstration show the lowest scores in political knowledge (66.7%). On the other hand, 81.1% of the students who show the highest score in political knowledge disagree with sit-ins as a means of political mobilization. Finally, a crosstab test was conducted between political knowledge and the political space in which students put themselves. The majority of students that belong to the center left show the highest score in political knowledge (95.2%). On the other hand, the lowest scores present the students that belong to the anarchist political space (78.8%) (x2=37,152, df=2, p=.001). Cluster Analysis Data analysis was based on Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) and Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) in two steps (Chadjipadelis, 2015). In the first step, HCA was used to assign subjects into distinct 14 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey groups according to their response patterns. The main output of HCA was a group or cluster membership variable, which reflects the partitioning of the subjects into groups. Furthermore, for each group, the contribution of each question (variable) to the group formation was investigated, in order to reveal a typology of behavioural patterns. To determine the number of clusters, we use the empirical criterion of the change in the ratio of between-cluster inertia to total inertia, when moving from a partition with r clusters to a partition with r1 clusters. sex1 sex2 grade1 grade2 grade3 E161 E162 E331 E332 E333 E334 E335 E351 E352 E353 E441 E442 E443 E444 E511 E512 E513 E514 E515 E516 E517 E518 E519 Urb1 Urb2 Urb3 POLKN1 POLKN2 POLKN3 GRA1 GRA2 GRA3 GRA4 GRA5 GRA6 Table 3. Hierarchical cluster analysis 4595 4596 4597 4599 4603 4.7 11.4 9.5 4.1 2.7 2.8 5.4 3.8 9.3 5.4 1.9 23.0 2.1 11.0 173.0 71.6 4.4 4.4 1.8 4.6 12.9 28.5 4.3 9.7 8.5 13.4 80.8 152.0 2.6 6.6 13.2 43.6 61.5 5.7 18.2 4594 4.3 87.0 Male Female Grade A Grade B Grade C 7.6 109.9 6.6 96.6 1.9 133.4 71.0 20.2 11.6 3.1 2.6 3.7 22.0 1.8 11.6 3.8 23.0 155.6 7.3 4.1 2.2 3.7 9.4 4.9 2.9 26.8 4.3 12.2 4.5 5.3 3.3 9.3 In the second step, the existing variables were jointly analysed with via Multiple Correspondence Analysis on the so-called Burt table (Greenacre, 2007). The Burt table is a symmetric, generalized contingency table, which cross-tabulates all variables against each other. The main MCA output is a set of orthogonal axes or dimensions that summarize the associations between variable categories into a space of lower dimensionality, with the least 15 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey possible loss of the original information contained in the Burt table. HCA is then applied on the coordinates of variable categories on the factorial axes. Note that this is now a clustering of the variables, instead of the subjects. The groups of variable categories can reveal abstract discourses. Table 4. Multiple correspondence analysis 59 71 72 74 76 Male Female grade A grade B grade C take part (NO) take part (YES) SD (lockin) D Neither, Nor A (lock-in) SA Demonstrations (ΝΟ) Demonstrations (YES) Demonstrations (No, I know) function very well in Greece Important reformations are needed Essential changes are necessary No answer Right 16 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Centre-right Centre Centreleft left Anarchist Not decided Nowhere No answer City Semi-Urban Rural Low Medium High The analysis showed that high political knowledge is connected with female, high grade and centre right political affiliation, while they don’t take part in lock-in or demonstrations. They think reforms are needed. Also they come from semi-urban families. Medium political knowledge is connected with male, medium grade, left and centre political affiliation, while they took part in demonstrations and lock-in. Also they think that essential changes are necessary. They come from rural families. Conclusions The main aim of this research was to outline the civic education impact on the adolescent students of higher secondary education in Greece. The sample was consisted of students from high schools of central Macedonia in Greece from urban, semi-urban and rural areas. For the analysis several variables that present students’ knowledge about political matters in Greece were used. A hyper-variable was created which was correlated with some independent such as sex and grade. Also, this hyper-variable was correlated with variables that referred to school sit-ins and students’ opinion about political demonstrations. Finally, the political knowledge variable was tested against the political space that students put themselves. There has been observed a distinction among students. More specifically boys seem to be more politically active but with lower political knowledge whereas girls, even though they show higher scores, they do not participate in demonstrations and sit-ins. These results agree with some other researchers who have moved on, so as to assume that the sex and that school performance influence students’ political attitudes especially during his/her transition from childhood to adolescence and adult life (Youniss, 1980). Meeus & Dekovic (1995) found that the 17 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey student identity, as it was measured by commitment in school chores plays an important role in the formation of individual political identity. The research on civic education influence on the formation of the future political identity is a major issue because of phenomena such as political apathy that can lead to political “inertia”. 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Citizenship and Social Class: And Other Essays. Cambridge: University Press. Meeus, W., & Dekovic, M. (1995). Identity development, parental and peer support in adolescence: Results of a national Dutch survey. Adolescence, 30, 931-944. Metaxas, A. (1976). Πολιηική κοινωνικοποίηζη. Αθήνα: Σάκκοςλαρ (in greek) Milner, H. (2002). Civic Literacy: How Informed Citizens Make Democracy Work. University Press of New England. Mussen, P. & Warren, A. (1970) Personality and Political Participation. Σηο Sigel, R. (ed.) Learning about Politics: a reader in political socialization, New York, Random House, 277-293. Papadimitriou, I and Florou, G. (1996) “Σςμβολή ηηρ εςκλείδειαρ και X2 μεηπικήρ ζηον πποζδιοπιζμό ηηρ ιδανικόηεπηρ ηαξινόμηζηρ καη' αύξοςζα ιεπαπσία”, Πανεπιζηήμιο Μακεδονίαρ Επιζηημονική Επεηηπίδα Τιμηηικόρ ηόμορ καθηγηηή κ. Ι. Λιάκη, Θεζζαλονίκη, (in greek). Patrick, J. (1977). Political Socialization and Political Education in Schools. Σηο Renshon, S. (Ed.) Handbook of Political Socialization: Theory and Research, New York, Free Pres. Rathus, S. A. (2011). Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Rush, M. & Althoff, P. (1971). An Introduction to Political Sociology. London: Nelson. Sigel, R. (1989). (ed) Political Learning in Adulthood. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 18 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Youniss, J. (1980). Parents and peers in social development. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Author Information Antonis Papaoikonomou Theodore Chadjipantelis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Egnatias 46, 1st Floor. Greece Contact e-mail: papaoiko@sch.gr Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Egnatias 46, 6th Floor Greece 19 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 20-29 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Mathematics Teachers' Usage of Inclusive Instructional Activities in Some Special Schools in Ibadan, Oyo State Adedeji TELLA University of Ibadan Abstract: Inclusive Education (IE) is a new approach towards educating the students with disability and learning difficulties with that of normal ones within the same classroom. It brings all students together in one classroom and community, regardless of their strengths or weaknesses in any area, and seeks to maximise the potential of all students. It is one of the most effective ways in which to promote an inclusive and tolerant society. It is known that 73 million children of primary school age were out of school in 2010, down from a high of over 110 million out-of-school children in the mid-1990s, according to new estimates by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). This study, therefore, was carried out to investigate the level and extent of mathematics teacher usage of inclusive instructional activities in their teaching delivery in some special schools in Ibadan, Oyo state. The objective of which to cater for students with special educational needs. The respondents were 11 mathematics teachers from four purposive selected junior secondary schools co-habitating students with and without special educational needs. The results reveal that mathematics teachers do not use inclusive instructional activities. The extent, awareness and level of usage was low. The study, therefore, recommends among others that mathematics teachers should be trained to use inclusive instructional activities that incorporate the inclusion of students in special schools. Keywords: Inclusive instructional activities, Mathematics teacher, Special schools, Ibadan, Oyo state Introduction Inclusive education is being given attention over the world for the past two decades. Inclusion originated from special education; a philosophy of service delivery for special education students to meet the special needs of students who were traditionally marginalized within the classroom. It is based on the belief that individuals with disabilities are a part of society and therefore should be included in all aspects of society. The philosophical framework anchoring inclusion is the integration and standardization of classrooms whereby there is an elimination of labels for students with disabilities in all levels of education. This philosophy was adopted at the “World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality” (Salamanca Statement, Spain 1994) and was restated at the World Education Forum (Dakar, Senegal 2000). The Statement according to Singh (2016) solicits governments to give the highest priority to making education systems inclusive and adopt stated principles of inclusive education as a matter of policy. This idea is further supported by the United Nation‟s Standard Rules on Equalization of Opportunities for Person with Disability Proclaiming Participation and equality for all. In Nigeria this is reflected in the National Policy on Education 2004 which states that: The education of children with special needs shall be free at all levels. All necessary facilities that would ensure easy access to education shall be provided e.g. inclusive or integration of special classes and unit into ordinary/public schools under the UBE scheme (Okorosate-Orubite & Yusuf, 2010). Also, it was stated that integration of persons with disabilities is the most realistic form of special education since handicapped children and adults are expected to live together in the society with their able bodied counterparts (FRN, 2004). To show how committed Nigerian Government to the education of her citizens with disabilities. The FGN established Federal College of Education (special), Oyo for the training of teachers in special education and also the funding of the University of Ilorin‟s Unit for the Supportive Education for the Deaf, housed in the Faculty of Education (OkorosateOrubite & Yusuf, 2010). Also, the professional associations concerned with the education of people with special - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey needs, have been addressing the issue of inclusive education in the country for instance inclusive education was one of the major issues examined at the 12th Annual National Conference of the National Council for Exceptional Children held at Minna, Niger State (Isah, 2014). Despite all these efforts, inclusion in Nigeria still remains in the realm of theory and far from practice special needs education (Isah, 2014). There are still problems in the areas of integration and implementation of inclusive education in Nigeria. If inclusive education is properly implemented with, with enough in-service and pre-service teachers training on the use of instructional activities, inclusive education is the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and achieving equal educational opportunities for all (Isah, 2014). According to Ainscow, Booth and Dyson (2004) and Gyimah (2011) inclusion can be understood to comprise four elements namely: i. ii. iii. iv. it is a process; it is concerned with the identification and removal of barriers; it is about the presence, participation and achievement of all students, and it involves a particular emphasis on those groups of learners who may be at risk of marginalization, exclusion or underachievement. Mitchell (2005) and Gyimah (2011) identify the following principle of inclusive education as: i. Entitlement to full membership in regular, age-appropriate classes in their neighbourhood schools; ii. Access to appropriate aids and support services, individualised programmes, with appropriately differentiated curriculum and assessment practices. Inclusive Education (IE) is defined as a process of addressing the diverse needs of all learners by reducing barriers to, and within the learning environment. It means attending the age appropriate class of the child‟s local school, with individually tailored support (UNICEF 2007), Thus, inclusive education is a process of strengthening the capacity of the education system to reach out to all learners. Friend and Pope (2005) define inclusion as the understanding that all students, such as gifted students, average learners, and those students who struggle should be fully welcomed members of their school communities and that all professionals in a school share responsibility for their learning (Peterson, 2011). Inclusive education or „inclusion in 21st century education‟ is a conceptual approach aimed at achieving quality education by making changes to accommodate all learners regardless of their physical, social or psychological differences (Belapurkar and Phatak, 2012). Inclusive Education (IE) is a new approach towards educating the students with disability and learning difficulties with that of normal ones within the same classroom. It brings all students together in one classroom and community, regardless of their strengths or weaknesses in any area, and seeks to maximise the potential of all students. It is one of the most effective ways to promote an inclusive and tolerant society. Some other benefits include friendships, social skills, personal principles, comfort level with people who have special needs, and caring classroom environments (Singh, 2016). Inclusive education cannot occur without the deliberate input several stakeholders which need to work together to make inclusion a reality. One among these stakeholders and perhaps the most important one for its success is the regular classroom teacher (Mheshwari and Shapurkar, 2015). A major part of the responsibility for the actualizing of an inclusive system where excellence and equality work in perfect harmony therefore rests in the hands of the teacher (McFarlane and Wolfson, 2013). According to Das, Kuyuni and Desai, 2013), teachers are the agent of change who are responsible for the successful implementation of inclusive education programs in all levels of education. They further state that, teacher‟s beliefs to a great extent shape the format of instructions and learning that children with disabilities will receive in a regular classroom. Costello and Boyle (2013), also made similar emphasis that teachers play a fundamental role in implementing an open and inclusive environment for all children (both less privilege and regular students) in the classroom. Survey of various studies conducted on inclusive education helps to understand more about inclusion and its importance. It clearly emphasises how important the role of school and teacher is, in dealing with inclusion, and making it successful (Belapurkar and Phatak, 2012). Despite this provision, it has been found that some teacher factors have influence on teachers use of inclusive education programmes effect of which could lead to students with disabilities still be excluded from regular classrooms. The reasons for this exclusion are multiple globally as lack of resources for inclusive education teachers, teacher‟s inability to handle inclusive classrooms 21 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey (Maheshwari and Shapurkar, 2015). Studies on inclusive education have also identified some problems facing teachers in the practices of inclusive education such include limited attention devoted to planning and preparing general education teachers for inclusion (Simpson and Myles,1990), where majority of schools are poorly designed and few are equipped to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities (Singh, 2016). While numerous studies have found that regular education teachers perceive themselves to be unprepared to teach children with disabilities (deBrettencourt, 1999; Peterson, 2011). Jelas (2000), Gafoor and Asaraf (2009) stated that the success of inclusive education is dependent in part on the mainstream teachers‟ perceptions of special need children and educability of these students and on the extent of their willingness to make adaptations to accommodate individual differences. If teachers responsible for inclusive teacher practices have unclear perceptions of their role, it may seriously undermine the efforts in maintenance and restructuring of the programmes towards inclusion. Das, et al (2013) identified large class sizes has another factor affecting teachers implementation of inclusive education. Reiff, Evans and Cass (1991), Peterson (2011) identified lacks of using variety of instructional strategies/activities for teaching students with disabilities while Scruggs and Mastropieri (2000) attributed this to general education teachers‟ awareness of inclusive education. Being aware about the special needs of students with disabilities, the necessary modifications in class curriculum, and the awareness about the need for the utilization of instructional activities are all significantly essential for teachers to be able to be truly inclusive in the type of education they impart. When teachers are aware and well informed about the concept of inclusion, they feel more confident about the roles they need to play in the classroom. In study carried out by Mheshwari and Shapurkar (2015) on awareness of the teachers about inclusive education, found that 46 teachers were unaware of inclusive education, out of which, 21 teachers said that they were cognizant of the fact that students with special needs need to be placed in regular classrooms, however they were unaware that such a concept was known as inclusive education. A lack of awareness of instructional activities to include and support students with disabilities along with other children in a regular classroom however can prove to be a major barrier in such a process (Bhatnagar and Das, 2013). This does not only affect the implementation of inclusive education in the classroom, but also has an impact on teachers‟ selfefficacy and disposition towards inclusive education (Mheshwari and Shapurkar, 2015). Teacher awareness has been found to significantly influence the learning environment they create for the students and the application of appropriate practices in the inclusive classroom (Bhatnagar and Das, 2013). The awareness of teacher in the utilization of instructional activities in inclusive education by gender plays a crucial role in the implementation of inclusive education. It is important that teacher categorization either as male or female may affect their ability to utilized instructional activities which can make a great difference in the education of their students with a disability. Teachers‟ gender not only determine the level of acceptance they show towards inclusive practices, but also affect their commitment towards the implementation of such policies (Avramidis and Norwich, 2002). It is the teacher who works most closely with the student. The knowledge that the teacher acquires and the awareness he/she holds, greatly influence the ability of students to adapt to their environment as well as their performance in the classroom. The awareness, knowledge and attitudes of the teacher also impact the effectiveness, with which inclusive practices are implemented (Mheshwari and Shapurkar, 2015). In the inclusive environment, the educational system is designed based on students‟ individual needs, as this facilitates the academic and social improvement of each learner. Therefore, the adaptation of curriculum, including appropriate instructional strategies is central to the creation of a more inclusive educational environment (Eriks-Brophy and Whittingham, 2013). These instructional strategies bring life to learning by stimulating students to learn. The use of instructional strategies in the classroom has the potential to help the teacher explain new concepts clearly, resulting in better student understanding of the concepts by constructing their own knowledge (Kadzera, 2006). It is held that good instructional strategies can never replace the teacher but make teachers as facilitator of teaching and learning processes. Even though there has been an increase in the number of students who are less privilege in inclusive settings, not all educational environments are properly equipped to meet these students‟ special needs (Berndsen and Luckner, 2012). A classroom may include different types of students; therefore, teachers should consider students‟ diverse needs when developing their means of instruction. This is significant to ensure that all students‟ learning needs are met via instruction, and it can be achieved when educators employ instructional methods that permit them to teach content in a number of different ways (Cross, Salazar, Dopson-Campuzano, and Batcheldar, 2009). In a study conducted by Ayantoye & Luckner (2016) on successful students who are with special needs and their teachers who were interviewed reported that both vocabulary support and additional 22 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey teaching strategies have a great impact on students‟ achievements. In addition, teachers in the aforementioned study most frequently stressed differentiated learning, repetition of information, and visual support as the most significant facilitators. While Florian (2006) in their study found that the „teaching approaches and strategies themselves were not sufficiently differentiated from those that are used to teach students to justify categorization as specialist pedagogy‟. This view, notwithstanding, Florian (2008) recognizes that what works for most children does not work with some. It will therefore mean that if we want all students to access the school curriculum and succeed academically, some form of differentiation will be required. In order to get around the difficulty in meeting the diverse needs of students in regular education, the United Kingdom Special Education Needs Code of Practice (DfES, 2001) in Gyimah (2011) suggests three main strategies. These are: setting suitable learning challenges; responding to students‟ diverse needs, and overcoming potential barriers to learning and assessment for individuals and groups of students. By implication, inclusion is not intended to frustrate teachers, but to identify ways to make all students succeed in the educational setting. Teachers can achieve this by adapting both the physical environment and the curriculum to ensure that every child benefits from the learning experience. This calls for prior planning to enable organization of learning materials that are appropriate for enabling all students to follow the lesson. DfEE (1997) and Gyimah (2011) list standards for trained teachers to enable them plan effective teaching that supports less privilege students during the learning process: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Identifying clear teaching objectives and content appropriate to the subject matter and the students being taught, and specifying how these will be taught and assessed Setting tasks for whole-class, individual and group work, including homework, which challenge students and ensure high levels of pupil interest Setting appropriate and demanding expectations for students‟ learning, motivation and presentation of work Setting clear targets for students‟ learning, building on prior attainment, and ensuring that students are aware of the substance and purpose of what they are asked to do Identifying students who have special educational needs, including specific learning difficulties, are very able; or are not yet fluent in English; and knowing where to get help in order to give positive targeted support. Statement of the Problem There has been an increase in scholarly interest in the type of instructional strategies suitable for inclusive education. Some studies have identified different strategies such as differentiated, individualized, collaborative learning strategies among others. Most studies have also focused largely on the utilization of these strategies in form of interventions of various kinds, without much effort on teacher factors like teachers‟ awareness, utilization of those instructional strategies in inclusive classrooms and the effect of gender on the utilization of instructional activities. The importance of the current study is underscored by the fact that little research has been done in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria to ascertain teacher‟ awareness and utilization instructional strategies in inclusive settings especially in mathematics classroom and also to examine any gender differences in mathematics teachers‟ utilization instructional strategies. Research Questions The study was guided by three research questions namely: 1. What is the mathematics teachers‟ awareness of instructional activities in inclusive mathematics classroom? 2. What is the mathematics teachers‟ utilization of instructional activities in inclusive mathematics classroom? Hypothesis Ho1: There is no significant difference in the utilization of instructional activities of male and female mathematics teachers 23 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Methodology The Research Design The study adopted survey research design of ex post facto type. This type of research design was adopted because there was no manipulation of variables, the data were already in existences. Variables in the Study The following variables were involved in the study. Independent Variables: i. Awareness of instructional activities ii. Utilization of instructional activities iii. Gender (male and female) Dependent Variable: Instructional activities Population The population comprised mathematics teachers in special junior secondary schools in Ibadan, Oyo state. Sample and sampling techniques Purposive sampling technique was used to select four Special Junior Secondary Schools in Oyo State. The schools selected are co-habitating students with and without special educational needs. 11 mathematics teachers from the selected special junior secondary schools participated in the study. Research Instruments Two research instruments were used to collect data for the study: 1. Mathematics Teachers Awareness of Instructional Activities in Inclusive Classroom A semi-structured, interview schedule for awareness of teachers towards utilization of instructional activities was made to assess the awareness of teachers about the various activities related to inclusive education. 2. Teachers Utilization of Instructional Activities in Inclusive Classroom Questionnaire The instrument was adapted from Instructional Strategies Teachers used in Inclusive Schools Questionnaire developed by Gyimah (2011). The instrument consisted of the twenty-two (22) items that included strategies on instructional objectives, classroom arrangement, peer support, space, time for assignment, instructional materials, question distribution, record keeping, individualized education plan, and alternative means for children to perform activities. The instrument adopted a three-point Likert-type scale response type to examining various types of instructional strategies teachers used in their inclusive schools to accommodate different categories of children. The initial scale was modified from „Less preferred‟, „Sometimes preferred‟, to „Most preferred‟ by the researcher to Always Utilized (AU), Occasionally Utilized (OU), Rarely Utilized (RU) and Never Utilized (NU) to suit the level of the respondent. The face and content validity of the items were done. The instrument was administered on a sample of JS secondary school teachers in school that was not part of the main study. The reliability and internal consistency of the instrument was determined through Cronbach alpha which gave a co-efficient of 0.85. Procedure for Data Collection The researcher took permission from the principals of the selected schools. All participating teachers were given a consent form to fill. The form informed the respondents, why they were singled out for participation, time commitment, benefits to be expected, potential risks and how they have been managed, and discussed how 24 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey confidentiality will be handled. All participation was voluntary. The instruments were administered to the respondents in order of their awareness of instructional activities followed by their utilization of instructional activities in inclusive classroom questionnaire. Methods of Data Analysis Data collected were analysed using the descriptive statistics of mean, standard deviation, frequency counts and percentages. The inferential statistics of t test was also used at 0.05 level of significance. Results and Discussion Research question 1: What is the mathematics teachers‟ awareness of instructional activities in inclusive mathematics classroom? Majority (8) of the teachers stated that they were not aware of instructional activities in inclusive mathematics classroom. This implies that their level of instructional activities awareness is low. Research question 2: What is the mathematics teachers‟ utilization of instructional activities in inclusive mathematics classroom? S/N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Table 1. Mathematics teachers‟ utilization of instructional activities Statements AU OU RU NU Mean I ensure that the classroom 2 4 3 2 2.55 environment is comfortable for 18.2% 36.4% 27.3% 18.2% students I ensure that the classroom is 3 6 3 1.91 spacious to allow for free 18.2% 54.5% 27.3% movement I select instructional materials 4 3 4 2.00 that make it possible for 36.4% 27.3% 36.4% students to learn I vary the pace to help students 2 2 4 3 2.23 to learn 18.2% 18.2% 36.4% 27.3% I ensure that questions are fair 3 5 3 2.00 and evenly distributed to allow 27.3% 45.5% 27.3% students to contribute to lessons I give sufficient time to 1 2 3 5 1.91 students to complete tests and 9.1% 18.2% 27.3% 45.5% assignments I try to arrange my classroom to 2 2 3 4 2.18 encourage participation 18.2% 18.2% 27.3% 36.4% I constantly monitor all my 2 3 3 3 2.37 children while they do class 18.2% 27.3% 27.3% 27.3% work I give individual attention to 2 2 4 3 2.27 student who need help 18.2% 18.25 36.4% 27.3% I give sufficient time to 2 3 3 3 2.36 students to practice what they 18.2% 27.3% 27.3% 27.3% learn I present tasks in bits to allow 1 2 4 4 2.00 students to learn efficiently 9.1% 18.2% 36.4% 36.4% I set instructional objective (s) 1 3 5 2 2.27 to cover students including 9.1% 27.3% 45.5% 18.2% those that are less privilege I keep daily records of the 3 1 4 3 2.36 progress students make in class 27.3% 9.1% 36.4% 27.3% I mix up students when they are 1 5 4 1.82 performing assignment 18.2% 45.5% 36.4% 25 STD.D 1.036 0.701 0.894 1.104 0.775 1.045 1.168 1.120 1.104 1.120 1.000 0.905 1.206 0.751 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey 15 16 I ask students to help each other I move to a new section or unit when students have understood and can perform what they have learned 17 I select learning tasks that less privilege students can do 18 I allow student who have difficulties writing the chance to answer questions by saying it orally or verbally 19 I approach consultants for advice when I do not know how to make students learn 20 I let student with disabilities work at different activities when assignment is given 21 I design individualized education plan for students that are less privilege 22 I allow less privilege students to engage in certain activities elsewhere in the classroom Weighted mean = 2.16 1 9.1% - 3 27.3% 3 27.3% 4 36.4% 7 63.6% 3 27.3% 1 9.1% 2.18 0.982 2.18 0.603 2 18.2% - 2 18.2% 3 27.3% 4 36.4% 5 45.5% 3 27.3% 3 27.3% 2.27 1.104 2.00 0.775 - 3 27.3% 6 54.5% 2 18.2% 2.09 0.701 1 9.1% 2 18.2% 5 45.5% 3 27.3% 2.09 0.944 1 9.1% 2 18.2% 6 54.5% 2 18.2% 2.18 0.874 2 18.2% 1 9.1% 7 63.6% 1 9.1% 2.37 0.924 Table 1 revealed the responses of the respondents to level of utilization of instructional activities in inclusive mathematics classroom. The ratings are as follow: I ensure that the classroom environment is comfortable for all children (2.55) was ranked highest by the mean ratings, followed by I allow less privilege students to engage in certain activities elsewhere in the classroom (2.37), I constantly monitor all my children while they do class work (2.37), I give sufficient time to all children to practice what they learn (2.36), I keep daily records of the progress children make in class (2.36), I set instructional objective(s) to cover all children including those that are less privilege (2.27), I give individual attention to children who need help (2.27), I vary the pace to help the children to learn. (2.23), I move to a new section or unit when all children have understood and can perform what they have learned (2.18), I design individualized education plan (IEP) for students that are less privilege (2.18), I ask children to help each other (2.18), I try to arrange my classroom to encourage participation (2.18), I approach consultants for advice when I do not know how to make all children learn (2.09), I let children with SEN and disabilities work at different activities when assignment is given (2.09), I ensure that questions are fair and evenly distributed to allow children to contribute to lessons (2.00), I select instructional materials that make it possible for all children to learn (2.00), I present tasks in bits to allow children to learn efficiently (2.00), I ensure that the classroom is spacious to allow for free movement (1.91), I give sufficient time to all children to complete tests and assignments (1.91), and lastly by I mix up the children when they are performing assignment (1.82). Table 1 further indicated the weighted mean of 2.16 which is lesser than standard mean of 2.50. This means that mathematics teachers rarely utilized instructional activities in inclusive mathematics classroom. This implies that teachers level of usage of instructional activities in inclusive mathematics classroom is low. Ho1: There is no significant difference in the utilization of instructional activities of male and female mathematics teachers Table 2. Difference in the utilization of instructional activities of male and female mathematics teachers Gender N Mean Std.d t P value Remark Male 5 46.50 4.892 4.564 0.000* Sig. Female 6 49.00 5.148 Table 2 showed that there is a significant difference in the utilization of instructional activities of male and female mathematics teachers (t = 4.564; p<0.05). Hence, the null hypothesis 1 was rejected. Table 3 further revealed that female mathematics teachers (49.00) had higher usage of instructional activities than their male counterparts (46.50). 26 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Level of Awareness of instructional activities The findings revealed that mathematics teachers‟ awareness of instructional activities is low. This may be due to the fact that teachers were not prompt to apply specific strategies in different mathematics tasks. Using of instructional activities do not helps to arouse their interest in teaching mathematics. Also that instructional activities sometimes are not suitable for teaching some mathematics concepts. This corroborated the findings of Maheshwari and Shapurkar (2011) who found that a large number (46) out of 60 teachers stated that they were unaware of the term and did not know what it meant. Level of Utilization of instructional activities The findings revealed that mathematics teacher rarely use of instructional activities in teaching mathematics. This means that teachers use of The findings revealed that teachers‟ utilization of instructional activities is low. This may be due to the fact that they did not see it fit to arrange their classrooms to encourage participation. They did not constantly monitor their students while they do class work on their own and that they did not allow students to help each other. This finding negates the findings of Peterson (2011) who found that general education teachers are implementing a number of instructional strategies such as small group instruction and individualized learning in their inclusive classrooms. This also disagreed with Gyimah (2015) who found that some teachers reported using some of the instructional strategies most often or sometimes, others indicated less frequent use. On the utilization of individualized instructional strategy, the findings of this study agreed with Gyimah (2011) who found that individualized instruction was one of the least strategies teachers considered in making provision for children with disabilities, that only 5% of the teachers reported using individualized education plan always. This negates the DfES (2001) that the use of individualized education plan can encourage access. Gender and Utilization of instructional strategies The results revealed that there is a significant difference in the utilization of instructional activities of male and female mathematics teachers in teaching mathematics. It was also observed that female mathematics teachers had higher utilization of instructional activities. This finding supports the findings of Inda (2013) who found that teachers‟ gender and the utilization of inquiry based method found out that female teachers were more than the male teachers and they possessed better organization skills than the male teachers. Inda, (2013) also found that the female teachers were more friendly to students and allowed them to freely manipulate instructional resources which were available creating an opportunity for students to construct knowledge from the immediate learning environment. This negates the findings of Ngeru (2015) who found that teacher‟s gender did not influence the utilization of instructional activities in teaching number work. Conclusion It could be concluded from the results that mathematics teachers have low levels of awareness and utilization of instructional activities in junior secondary school. Gender influences mathematics teachers‟ utilization of instructional activities in inclusive classrooms. There is needs for teachers to be well trained in the utilization of different research-based instructional materials in order for them take every child‟s needs into consideration in terms of selection of objectives, plan, classroom management and implementation of instructional strategies in a way that will meet the needs of diverse students in their mathematics classroom. Also provision of facilities that encourage the utilization of these strategies such as positive classroom climate, access and support services as they implement decisions to allow every pupil to effectively participate and benefit from instruction. Recommendations i. Teachers should plan instruction in collaboration with other teachers ii. Government and Non-Governmental Originations should make provision for more classrooms. Most classrooms in the schools investigated are too large and teacher-pupil ratio are incredibly high to allow for effective and efficient utilization of instructional activities 27 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey iii. Teachers‟ awareness of inclusive education could be enhanced in the context of an educational system by organizing seminar, workshops and symposium for general educators and special educators which can provide some specific training on the importance of instructional activities and the ways they can be utilized in order to have a good practice in this field. iv. Inclusion should not be the sole responsibility of the specific class teacher. Everybody should be involved and take responsibility. Training for teachers especially the male teachers should be sustained and ongoing. It should most importantly focus on their awareness and utilization of instructional activities. v. Periodic evaluation of the training programmes and constant updating to meet the challenges of changing trends in special education should be part of the planning of teacher preparation. vi. The Right to Education (RTE) must apply to all citizens of Nigeria. State and Local Governments as well as all the other social actors should recognize the importance of a broadened concept of inclusive education that addresses the diverse needs of all learners. References Ainscow M, Booth T, & Dyson, D. (2004). Understanding and developing inclusive practices in schools: a collaborative action research network. Int. J. Inclusive Educ., 8(2): 125-139. Avramidis, E. & Norwich, B. (2002). Teachers' attitudes towards integration / inclusion: a review of the literature. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 17(2), 129-147. Ayantoye, C. & Luckner, J. L. (2016). Successful students who are deaf or hard of hearing and culturally and/or linguistically diverse in inclusive settings. American Annals of the Deaf, 160(5), 453-466. Belapurkar, A. M. & Phatak, S. V. (2012). Knowledge and attitude about Inclusive Education of school teachers: A study. Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies. 85, 1237-1241. dOI:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.736 Berndsen, M., & Luckner, J. (2012). Supporting Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing in General Education Classrooms: A Washington State Case Study. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 33(2), 111-118. doi:10.1177/1525740110384398 Bhatnagar, N., & Das, A. (2013). Attitudes of secondary school teachers towards inclusive education in New Delhi, India. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs.http://www.researchgate.net/publication/235362271 Costello, S., Boyle, C. (2013). Pre-service Secondary Teachers‟ Attitudes towards Inclusive Education. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38 (4). Cross, L., Salazar, M. J., Dopson-Campuzano, N., & Batchelder, H. W. (2009). Best Practices and Considerations: Including Young Children with Disabilities in Early Childhood Settings. Focus On Exceptional Children, 41(8), 1-8. Das, A., Kuyuni, A. and Desai, I. (2013) Inclusive education in India: Are the teachers prepared? International Journal of Special Education, 28, No: 1 deBettencourt, L. U. (1999). General educator‟s attitudes toward students with mild disabilities and their use of instructional strategies: Implications for training. Remedial and Special Education, 20, 27-35. doi:10.1177/074193259902000104 Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) (1997) Standards for the award of qualified teacher status (Annex A to DfEE Circular Letter 1/97). London: DfEE. Eriks-Brophy, A. & Whittingham, J. (2013). Teachers' perceptions of the inclusion of children with hearing loss in general education settings. American Annals of the Deaf, 158(1), 63-97 Forlin, C. (2006). Inclusive Education in Australia ten years after Salamanca. European Journal of Psychology of Education - EJPE (Instituto Superior De Psicologia Aplicada), 21(3), 265-277. Florian L (2008) Special or inclusive education: future trends. British J. Special Educ., 35 (4), 202-208 Friend, M., & Pope, K. L. (2005). Creating schools in which all students can succeed. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 41(2), 56-61. doi: 200500105886003 Gafoor, K.A., & Asaraf, M.P. (2009). Inclusive education: Proceedings of the International conference on education, research, and innovation for inclusive societies. Andra: Kuppam Jelas, Z.M. (2000). Perceptions of Inclusive practices. The Malaysian perspective Educational Review, 52(2), 187-196. Kadzera, C.M. (2006). Use of instructional technologies in teacher training colleges in Malawi. Doctoral Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Isah, M. S. (2014). Inclusive education in Nigeria: The way forward. National Journal of Inclusive Education, 2(1), 35-39. 28 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Okorosate-Orubite & Yusuf, A. (2010). Inclusive Education in Nigeria: Lessons from the United States of America (USA). Retrieved 10 June, 2018 from https://www.academia.edu/12808857/inclusive_education_in_nigeria_lessons_from_the_united_states _of_america_usa_ Peterson, K. (2011). A Qualitative Study of Instructional Strategies Used by Elementary General Education Teachers in Inclusive Classrooms. http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/448 McFarlane, K. & Wolfson, L. M. (2013). „Teacher attitudes and behavior toward the inclusion of children with social, emotional and behavioral difficulties in mainstream schools: an application of the theory of planned behavior.‟ Teaching and Teacher Education, 29,46–52. Mitchell D (2005) Introduction; sixteen propositions on the contexts of inclusive education. In D. Mitchell (Ed.). Contextualizing inclusive education evaluating old and new international perspectives. London: Routledge, pp. 230¬252. Maheshwari, P and Shapurkar, M. (2015). Awareness and Attitudes of Primary Grade Teachers (1-4thGrade) towards Inclusive Education. International Journal of Educational and Pedagogical Sciences, 9(11), 3959-3964. Reiff, H. B., Evans, E. D., & Cass, M. (1991). Special education requirements for general education certification: A national survey of current practices. Remedial and Special Education, 12(5), 56-60. doi: 10.1177/074193259101200508 Scruggs, T. & Mastropieri, M. (2000). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective instruction. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Simpson, R. & Myles, B. (1990). The general education collaboration model: A model for successful mainstreaming. Focus on Exceptional Children, 23, 1-10. Singh, J. D. (2016). Inclusive education in India – concept, need and challenges. Scholarly Research Journal for Humanity Science & English Language, 3, 3222-3232. UNICEF (2007). Promoting the Rights of Children with Disabilities. Innocenti Research Centre. Retrieved from http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/digest13-disability.pdf Author Information Adedeji Tella University of Ibadan Department of Science and Technology Education Nigeria Contact e-mail: dejtell@gmail.com 29 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 30-35 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Introducing the Internet of Things to Computer Science Students Elena KRELJA KURELOVIC Polytechnic of Rijeka Jasminka TOMLJANOVIC Polytechnic of Rijeka Dario KUKULJAN Juraj Dobrila University of Pula Abstract: The aim of this paper is to show the importance of integrating the Internet of Things (IoT) into the curriculum, especially for computer science students. The Internet of Things is a new trend in the development of the Internet, where focus is on interaction between objects, i.e. “things”. The IoT has become very widespread and the number of smart devices is increasing on a daily basis, thus we are talking about smart wearables, smart home, smart city, smart cars, smart healthcare, smart agriculture, etc. Therefore, it is important to familiarize computer science students with the IoT concept by examining literature and participating in practical projects which prepare them for future jobs. This paper describes the learning model with IoT projects as a part of course curriculum, for a 1st year Computer science students of the Polytechnic of Rijeka. The working hypothesis is that students show better results on the course with IoT projects in curriculum than in previous years with traditional teaching methods. The most significant goal of such a project is to reduce the educational gap between the skills demanded by the labor market and the practical knowledge of the future workforce in the IT field. Keywords: Internet of things, Smart home, M2M, STEM, Education Introduction Due to the increasing availability of broadband and wireless Internet, the number of smartphone users and the development of cloud technology, and to the decrease in prices of electronics, a lot of “smart” devices are appearing. In 1999, Kevin Ashton laid the foundations for the IoT concept, explaining that things we use in our daily lives, if they have identifiers and the possibility to connect to the Internet, they can communicate mutually and could be controlled from anywhere. The Internet of Things (IoT) is a concept where all “things” or objects have a representation and a presence on the Internet. Smartphones, smartwatches and fitness bands (Wearable technology), which use sensors to track physical activity and pulse, thus enabling users to improve their health are being more and more used. Smart houses/buildings, smart cities, autonomous i.e. smart cars and vehicles, smart healthcare, smart agriculture are some of the areas in which the IoT is being used. The predictions of Internet of Things development indicates that numerous companies worldwide will have implemented the IoT by 2020, in order to improve their business activities, more than 65%, according to Gartner, and over 20 billion smart devices will have been connected globally (Banerjee, 2016; Hung, 2017). It is evident that we are heading towards the digital transformation in all sectors, referred to as “4th industrial revolution”. Therefore, it is important to familiarize computer science students with the IoT, in theory and practice, during their studies in order to prepare them for the labor market. The main research question in this paper is will the students show greater interest in the course and better results when the IoT is included in the curriculum. - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey The Basics of the Internet of Things The term Internet of Things “generally refers to scenarios where network connectivity and computing capability extends to objects, sensors and everyday items not normally considered computers, allowing these devices to generate, exchange and consume data with minimal human intervention” (Internet Society, 2015). Google defines the IoT as a “network of everyday items with embedded computers that can connect directly or indirectly to the Internet” (Asseo et al, 2016). In such a network every object has its own unique identifier. The term “thing” refers to objects made by humans (measuring instruments, watches, clothes, consumer electronics, cars, houses, farms, industrial robots, etc.), as well as natural objects (plants, animals, people). For example, “The Cow Tracking Project” has attached various sensors to cows to collect data regarding their health, eating patterns, behavior within the herd; with all the information being sent in real time to a local server (Plavljanic, 2016). Due to the fact that everything can be connected, Cisco uses the terms “Internet of Everything”, IoE (Evans, 2012). “Smart things” offer an insight into data that until now has been hard to obtain, and they bring new value through the interpretation of collected data and better decision-making. The connection of a device to an engine or a database puts data in context to other information and that is truly the value of the IoT (Asseo et al, 2016). Exchanging, analysis and processing of the collected data are at the foundation of the Internet of Things, which is referred to as “new connectivity”. There are 3 types of connectivity: person to person, person to machine, machine to machine. The IoT concept should increase the data flow between devices and computers and between people and computers (Plavljanic, 2016). M2M communication Machine-to-Machine (M2M) is automated communication (without human intervention) between machines, devices and objects. “Connected devices” is one of the features of the Internet of Things. The Internet of Things is bridging the physical and virtual worlds, in which M2M communications represent the baseline communication that enables the interactions between things and applications in the cloud (Internet Society, 2015). The Internet of Things generally refers to Machine-to-Machine communications involving networkbased remote sensors and actuators (Asseo et al, 2016). The devices connected to the IoT use wireless technology to communicate: RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), NFC (Near Field Communication), Wi-Fi, LTE, and so on. Every device has its own unique IP address (to identify each thing) and it shares information with other connected devices and applications in real time or at defined time intervals. Smart Home One area of application of the Internet of Things is “Smart Home”. The term “smart home” means there are different things inside a home that are computer-controlled and connected, with advanced processes of automation and optimization, e.g. energy consumption in order to increase comfort and security in the home. The smart home system consists of interconnected network of sensors and “things” like heating/cooling, lighting, alarm system, home appliances and devices, electric blinds/shutters, garage doors, water/gas valves, remote controls, communication devices and microcontrollers (figure 1). All objects are connected into a network, and each object has its own unique IP address so it can be controlled and managed from different positions and it can communicate with other objects in the network. The network itself can be wired, wireless, or an existing power-line can be used. The smart home system can be controlled and managed in different ways; most often via smartphones, remote controls, computers, or touchscreens. According to analysis, world market for smart home appliances will grow to $ 400 billion by 2030. (Kearney, 2017). Figure 1. Example of a Smart Home (Horvat, 2017) 31 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey The Internet of Things as a part of teaching The Internet of Things can be integrated into lesson plans and activities in the classroom at all levels. This paper presents the experience acquired in teaching an introduction to the Internet of Things as a part of the course named “System and Information” to 1st year computer science students at the Polytechnic of Rijeka. Main goal was to motivate students to become more prepared for future jobs in the IT field and interested in STEM. The Internet of Things can improve education in different ways: as a technological tool to enhance academic infrastructure and classrooms (smart boards, mobile devices, e-books, student ID cards with RFID tags, etc.), or as a subject or a course to teach fundamental concepts of computer science. As a teaching subject, the IoT can be a stimulating topic to attract students to computer science studies and it is a platform for teaching computer science concepts (Gul et al., 2017). Asseo et al. (2016, pp. 23) consider it is important to “Take advantage of the opportunity and responsibility to teach students how to design IoT products and systems. Incorporate new subjects in order to provide the skills that are necessary in an IoT business world, where analysis of big data from IoT sensors will take on a major role. Most important, inspire creativity to apply the IoT to new businesses and concepts, and instill a vision of where the IoT can lead.” Teaching Methods In presented case study, familiarizing students with the Internet of Things concept, its possibilities and applications, consisted of theoretical and practical lessons. The teaching methods that emphasized collaborative and active learning, problem-solving and critical thinking were used. After 2 introductory lessons, students divided into teams (3-4 persons) and chose a topic they would study in detail, research and then present to others and prepare questions for discussion. The following topics are proposed: Communication Models in IoT, Smart Wearables, Smart Home, Smart City, Smart Cars/Vehicles, Smart Healthcare, Smart Agriculture, Security and Privacy Issues in IoT. In practical classes, students worked in groups to develop IoT based projects with LittleBits Smart Home Kit. The set consists of 14 electronic components (input sensors, CloudBit module with Wi-Fi, output modules like LED, MP3 player, IR transmitter etc.), which can be put together with built-in magnets (like Legos), that enables the creation IoT projects without soldering. The numerous possible combinations of these components engage students in active inquiry and problem-solving and make the whole process of learning-by-doing more interesting. Created projects can be managed via apps on a smartphone, tablet, or computer, from anywhere. Finished projects can be triggered by web services like e-mail/Gmail, Calendar, Facebook, or SMS, using IFTTT service (If-This-Then-That). Students learned about the IoT concept, home automation and network control. LittleBits Smart Home Kit supports trends in modern education: STEAM programs, the Maker Movement, project-based learning, collaborative learning, 21st-century skills and creative thinking (LittleBits Educator’s Guide). “Point-and-click control software (e.g., IFTTT, https://ifttt.com/) can easily configure sensors and actuators to create do-it-yourself, highly optimized custom-control systems. All of these IoT examples can ultimately enhance the learning experience for students and teachers, offering improved engagement and collaboration.” (Asseo et al, 2016). Students’ IoT Projects CloudBit module, which can send a signal from LittleBits circuit to the Internet, or can receive a signal from an event on the Internet and send it to LittleBits circuit, was added to the projects the students had been familiarized with. Prior to first use, students had to setup the CloudBit module and connect it to a Wi-Fi (https://www.littlebits.com/cloudstart). Some of the IoT projects made by students included: turning on/off lights controlled by a light sensor, measuring of room temperature (figure 2) via computer app or smartphone app (figure 3), turning on/off cooling fan when the room temperature is above 24C (with IR transmitter behind CloudBit like on figure 2), turning on/off water heater when CloudBit receives an email automated by IFTTT web service (figure 4), receiving an email if the noise level (sound trigger + threshold before CloudBit) in the room is too high, the alarm clock (MP3 player module) which is triggered by a Google Calendar event. 32 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Figure 2. Temperature measurement via Internet Figure 3. LittleBits Cloud Control with smartphone, receiving a signal Figure 4. Automation of LittleBits project with IFTTT Results and Discussion After listening to lectures, giving presentations and doing practical assignments regarding the Internet of Things, students acquired practical and theoretical skills and knowledge and were able to apply critical thinking skills and discuss the topic. Students became more engaged and learned more, and the pass rate on the course increased by 8% compared to the previous two years with traditional teaching (figure 5). Although they were satisfied with the acquired skills and knowledge, they have recognized some problems with IoT. Some students expressed concerns about IoT security issues and the privacy protection of users. However, as future IT specialists, they are aware that IoT will create many new jobs and professions. 33 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Figure 5. Pass rate on the course “System and information” with and without IoT in curriculum Considering that computer science students have courses in programming during their studies, LittleBits Smart Home Kit has shown certain limitations. The authors believe that this particular set is more suitable for younger age groups, eg. primary and secondary school students. Therefore, in the following academic year, Arduino RFID Starter Kit is planned to be used in order for students to get acquainted with the method of contactless communication and automatic identification, which can be applied to register students’ attendance. Conclusıon The number of connected objects is continuously increasing, which means that the IoT has a significant influence on the economy, industry and also education. The Internet of Things changes our habits. For example, the way we look after ourselves and our health, the way we manage our home, order, buy and pay, communicate, gather information and make decisions; it also helps optimize our everyday processes. Implementing the IoT into teaching with practical lessons requires a lot of preparation for both, teachers and students, but benefits are bigger than obstacles. Students have gained knowledge and practical experience which help them to understand the IoT concept and how “smart” things work. Teachers who want to include the IoT in their lesson plans must make sure they have all necessary IT equipment, with emphasis on a robust network bandwidth and reliable Wi-Fi, as well as choose teaching strategies that support the use of IoT in the classroom. However, if we want to prepare students for the demands of the labor market, it is necessary to include and integrate such topics and content into the computer science curriculum. References Asseo, I., Johnson, M., Nilsson, B., Neti, C., Costello, TJ. (2016, July/August). The Internet of Things: Riding the Wave in Higher Education. Educause. 51(4). Retrieved from https://er.educause.edu/~/media/files/articles/2016/6/erm1641.pdf Banerjee, P. (2016). IoT Report. Retrieved from http://www2.schneiderelectric.com/documents/presentation/en/local/2016/04/998-19699217_IoT_Report_2016_v2.pdf Evans, D. (2012). The Internet of Everything. Cisco Internet Business Solution Group (IBSG). Retrieved from https://www.cisco.com/c/dam/global/en_my/assets/ciscoinnovate/pdfs/IoE.pdf Gul, S., Asif, M., Ahmad, S., Yasir, M., Majid, M., Malik, S.A. (2017, May). A Survy on Role of Internet of Things in Education. IJCSNS International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security. 17(5). Retrieved from http://paper.ijcsns.org/07_book/201705/20170520.pdf Horvat, I. (2017). Embedded računala i Internet stvari (IoT). Ucionica.net. Retrieved from https://www.ucionica.net/racunala/embedded-racunala-i-internet-stvari-iot-4038/ Hung, M. (2017). Leading the IoT. Gartner Inc. Retrieved from https://www.gartner.com/imagesrv/books/iot/iotEbook_digital.pdf Internet Society. (2015). The Internet of Things: An Overview, Understanding the Issues and Challenges of a More Connected World. Retrieved from https://www.internetsociety.org/wpcontent/uploads/2017/08/ISOC-IoT-Overview-20151221-en.pdf 34 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Kearney, A.T. (2017). The Battle for the Smart Home: Open to All. Retrieved from https://iotnews.asia/wpcontent/uploads/2017/01/The-Battle-for-the-Smart-Home-Open-to-All.pdf LittleBits Educator’s Guide. Retrieved from http://e.littlebits.com/lndownload-teachers-guide-welcome Plavljanic, B. (2016). Internet of Things (IoT). PC Chip. Retrieved from https://pcchip.hr/internet/internetthings-iot/ Author Information Elena Krelja Kurelovic Jasminka Tomljanovic Polytechnic of Rijeka Trpimirova 2/V, Rijeka, Croatia Contact e-mail: elena@veleri.hr Polytechnic of Rijeka Trpimirova 2/V, Rijeka, Croatia Dario Kukuljan Juraj Dobrila University of Pula Zagrebacka 30, Pula, Croatia 35 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 36-42 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education The Art of Emotional Intelligence in Soft Skills: Generate the 1st Class Human Capital Siti Sarawati JOHAR Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Zurina RAMLI SK. Tarcisian Convent, Malaysia Abstract: The focus in this short study is to clarify the soft skills development by the emotional intelligence standpoint purposing for generate the first-class human capital. Discussion on issues of Malaysian’s development scenario, the importance of emotional intelligence and the importance of soft skills will discuss in detail. The year 2020 is targeted by Malaysia to becoming a developed country with our own way. The exact aspiration is to develop the ideal human capital in balance with the emotional intelligence and acceptable mindset fitting the way of life from one generation to one generation. The stable country’s development in politic, economic and social field are significant to human value as mentioned in Maslow’s theories. Many of world civilizations always noted by the best achievement in the fact of physically facilities, infrastructures, level of literacy, stable economic status and political that able to influence the world order. Unfortunately, some of world society lives in absent of holistic value, inconsiderate, depression and lack of religion grasp. Historically Malaysia has been colonized by European around 446 years. Some of social, economy and political patterns influenced the Malaysians way of living. Some actions should be considered to preserve our valuable traditions, norms, culture inherited by our relatives from different demographical background. Those values supposed as the truly image of first class human capital incorporated with the developing and generating the art of emotional intelligence in soft skills among Malaysian students. Keywords: Emotional intelligence, Soft skills, Generate, Human capital Introduction To live peacefully in our own country in politic, economic and social field since Independence Day on 31 August 1957 are everyone dreams in this country. Well maintained roads, fresh water, developed rural and urban infrastructures, schools, universities, colleges, business township, secure stock exchanges, set up Islamic banking, modern business and government buildings, variety of public transportations, structured housing plans and others reflects the fast growing of modern developments by Malaysian Made products and peoples. Created, developed and managed by Malaysians since the independent day from colonial era 61 years ago. We have proven to other Asian countries that we are better off in some aspect. For instance, the tallest building in the world, the biggest international airport, the longest bridge in Asia, the best universities in south east Asia, the best badminton, hokey, and squash player in the world. We are likely to gear up in term of infrastructure, management and human resource to face the target to achieve the Vision 2020. Literally, we are facing the ‘nine challenges’ to build this country as one of the developed country in the world. Wawasan 2020 or Vision 2020 is a Malaysian ideal introduced by the former 4th Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Mahathir bin Mohamad (now is 7th Malaysia Prime Minister) during the tabling of the Sixth Malaysia Plan in 1991. Mahathir’s speeches have outlined the nine challenges that Malaysia must overcome to achieve Vision 2020. The several challenges are listed in the table below: - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 1. Nine challenges for Wawasan 2020 or Vision 2020 STRATEGIES To form a nation that stands as one To produce a Malaysian community that has freedom, strength, and full of self-confidence Challenge 3 To develop a mature democratic community Challenge 4 To form a community that has high morale, ethics and religious strength Challenge 5 To cultivate a community that is matured and tolerant Challenge 6 To form a progressive science community Challenge 7 To cultivate a community rich in values and loving culture Challenge 8 To ensure the formation of a community with a fair economy Challenge 9 To cultivate a prosperous community Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wawasan_2020 CHALLENGE Challenge 1 Challenge 2 On the other hand, the ideal development suited best for Malaysian societies is a balance development within emotional and spiritual aspects to ensure everlasting peacefulness in this country. There is an urgency needed for us to develop the functional human capital in making the first class emotional and mentally ready. The ‘Malaysia Boleh’ prevailing key words might help to boost up the Malaysian’s spirit together making up this country the best place to live ever after. Reality of Present Scenario Unconsciously, our society has not fully realized that the partial of negative culture had influenced our society, economy and politic. We are now actually following their order of regulations. The hedonism or pleasureseeking and amusement culture such as music, movies, recreational, leisure, and entertainments ware more permeate and absorbed to Malaysian culture. As a result, we have faced countless attitude problems among our own youths and societies. We need to make sure our Malaysian’s societies have our own set of cultures (traditional cultures) and customs suitable with our own demographical background. The societies have the responsibility to distinguish which one is the best and suitable for them to follow. Creating the first-class human capital in emotional, mentality and behavior which is in line with the mission of Vision 2020. Lack of Family Institution Wellbeing Mostly our Malaysian’s family institutions are busy working and managing business, searching for extra money to make sure their families have enough for everything and as a result, unforeseen vital responsibility such as giving attention, love and caring to their own families are ignored. In the globalization economic system, it has demanded the societies to live in trendy upbringing. Internet and technology are the two elements denominated the information technology makes our youngsters difficult to choose which one is right to follow and believes. This phenomenon has a direct impact on relationship of family institution. It becomes worst when our societies perceived money and entertainment are dominant in their life. Therefore, most of parents have forgotten to give enough religious and moral knowledge to their children and in fact, they themselves did not practice praying in every day. Many children nowadays are taking more time playing with their computer and electronic games as a substitution of their parent’s attentions. The children with less guidance and attentions will be not surprisingly have an intention to surf immoral web pages, watching the pornographies and finally become addicted. The hallucination thought to try what they have seen if they get the opportunities getting uncontrollable and end up with crimes and felonies. In some cases, children who are living in cramped houses with many family members feel comfortable with their friends being away from home. The family’s situation becomes deteriorative if they meet friends with horrifying attitude. Joining the ‘rempit, lepak, bohsia and bohjan’ groups might be creating delinquent behavior such as stealing, clubbing, smoking, drinking, free sexual practice and drug addicting. In conclusion, children who had been papered with money and entertainments at all time are more likely to be morally imbalance compared to those have love and caring by their parents. Teaching moral, precise decision making, practicing ritual and religious together with children constantly had proven its ability to shape our Malaysian’s citizen socially accepted. If we could tackle these social problems systematically, perhaps the dream of having the firstclass human capital could be gained in no time. Meaning that, we need to address this matter seriously and those youth’s problems are threats to our peaceful independent country. 37 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Lack of Human Values in Society Another problem in our society today is an absent of love and caring value among family members and their surrounding society. Value of money and high social status are more imperative than love value. Many children and youths are hardly to respect others and do not bother to give hands to those who are misfortune. The person who own a big house, luxury car, trendy lifestyle and being famous labeled as VVIP are more likely to be socially accepted in the modern society compared to those who just an ordinary blue-collar worker. The social status which has mentioned in the above, has becoming a trend and creating arrogant individuals. As a result, lack of social interaction between high and low-class people was happened. The effect of this social status has makes difficult for us to achieve the nine challenging in the Vision 2020. To generate the loving and caring culture in our country, its required vertical and horizontal interaction between the high and low-class societies. By setting a border in a social status makes societies becoming less interdependent among each other’s. If we glimpse back to our old history of Malacca’s government in 1511, Portuguese has taking an opportunity on the loophole of the weak social bond between all levels in the society. Losing the solidarity and human values among Malacca’s society and its government at that time makes Portuguese easily concurred the Malacca’s government and invaded Malacca for many years. Many years ago, we have heard the sad news about many cases of child killing or domestic violence to children. For example, the tragedies happened to Nurin Jazlin make Malaysians worried about the security of our family and society. The tragedy was unstopped; in fact, many children’s have been missing from home and became victims of sexual crimes. Many afford has been taken to help searching the missing kids, but it was hopeless. Our society seems are not learning from the tragedy happened and being careless to the threats. To stop the kidnappers are impossible, but the best solution to this problem is by practicing mutual social interaction and care for each other’s. The awareness and integrations in all races might help to reduce fear, worries, traumatic and doubtful of any crimes and felonies happened. Together we put an effort to combat the crime. If society with a strong society responsibility are tightly bonded each other’s, it will be difficult for crime incident to happen. The Importance of Emotional Intelligence Emotion is originated from a Greek word “emovere” which has the meaning of getting out. Human emotions are an action in order to fulfill the individual satisfaction. It can be seen as a situation where, feelings are shown through physiology process and individual psychology (Mohd Nazar Mohamad, 1991). It is as set of automatic response and communication of emotions such as face expression, words, behavior and signals shown by everyone. Feelings and emotion are important in having happiness and space consistently in life. Therefore, the decisive factor to have outstanding achievement in life whether it is a personal or professional matter is through good emotion controls (Goleman, 1995 in: Prakas Roa, 2001). According to Goleman (1995), the level of an individual’s emotional intelligence (EI) is the main factor to individual success determination especially students. In his book, “Emotional Intelligence”, it is said that an individual success is depend on 25% of their IQ and 80% on the effectiveness of emotions management. It is proven that a good level of emotions management is the main factor for individual to achieve success in life (Zainuddin, 2000). Emotional intelligence can also be categorized into two components, interpersonal (emotion for public relationship) and intrapersonal (emotions for self-relationship). Emotional intelligence can be correlate with ability to understand other individual feelings and taken as a self-experienced, empathy to other feelings, self-motivation and the ability to interact effectively. Emotion intelligence can be defined as a social intelligence that is responsible to control one or many emotions to discriminate an emotion using the interconnected data to control the mind and action (Mayer and Salovey, 1993:433). The ‘mental abilities’ conceptualization of emotional intelligence (Mayer et al., 2000; Mayer & Salovey, 1993, 1997) proposes that emotional intelligence represents the intersection of general mental ability and emotions. In the same situation, emotional intelligence indicates the extent to which cognitive capabilities and processes are informed by emotions and the extent to which emotions are cognitively managed. Thus, while the type of information (emotional vs. verbal, symbolic, or mathematical) considered by emotional intelligence and general mental ability differ, they are related to the extent that they employ similar information-processing strategies. The mental abilities model specifies four emotional intelligence dimensions: Perceiving Emotions, or the ability to identify emotions in the self and others; Facilitating Thought, or the ability to use information that explains felt emotions in order to prioritize and direct thinking; Understanding Emotions, or the ability to understand the relationships among emotions, and how emotions transition from one state to another; and Managing Emotions, or the ability to manage emotions in oneself and others (Mayer et al., 1999). Additionally, it should be noted that utilizing emotional intelligence, like general mental ability, is not a passive process. The 38 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey theory implies that the abilities included in emotional intelligence require cognitive effort for their effects to be realized (Mayer et al., 2004). Although many models of interpersonal effectiveness have been proposed, mostly had supported the notion of two general components: (1) the effective communication of ideas and opinions; and (2) the ability to facilitate productive interactions among two or more individuals (DeVito, 2004; Knapp, Miller, & Fudge, 1993). While interpersonal interaction can involve various communication mediums and timeframes, we focus on oral communication and real-time interactions because of their conceptual relevance to emotional intelligence. emotional intelligence should be related to the effective communication of ideas and opinions for at least two reasons. First, an integral part of the Understanding Emotions dimension; is the ability to understand how environmental influences (e.g., message content, verbal, and nonverbal cues) facilitate the transition from one emotional state to another (Salovey, Mayer, & Caruso, 2002). Then combined with the ability to manage one’s own emotional state (Managing Emotions), should enable one to display appropriate passion (and restraint) when speaking, a key characteristic of effective oral communication (Walker, 2005). The second thing is, emotional intelligence is thought to be related to individual adaptive coping behaviors (Jordan, Ashkanasy, & Hartel, 2002), which influence communication more effectiveness. One defining abilities of the Managing Emotions dimension is the capacity to connect or disconnect from an emotion depending on its usefulness in any given situation (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Thus, emotional intelligence should facilitate detachment from extreme felt stress and its associated emotional states, to enable one to better focus on the hands-on task. This aspect of emotional intelligence may be particularly relevant to oral communication in formal or group settings, given that public speaking and the expression of personal opinions in group settings are considered highly stressful activities for many individuals (Daly & McCroskey, 1984). Similarly, emotional intelligence should be related to effective interactions among individuals because it helps individuals monitor their own and others’ behaviors (Feyerherm & Rice, 2002). In their now classic taxonomy, Benne and Sheats (1948) identified that there are two general types of individual behaviors. That is the task oriented and relationship oriented, associated with effective interpersonal interactions in small groups. Task-oriented behaviors are designed to facilitate or coordinate decision-making, while relationship-oriented behaviors are designed to strengthen interpersonal relationships. For example, task-oriented behaviors include information seeking (i.e., asking questions and seeking relevant data or views from team mates) and summarizing (i.e., reviewing others’ viewpoints and checking for common understanding). Relationshiporiented behaviors include encouraging (i.e., supporting and praising others’ ideas) and gate keeping (assuring even participation by all group members). Active listening behaviors assure the sender that their message has been accurately understood as well as signal that the sender’s opinions are valued and taken seriously. As a result, they lessen the sender’s feelings of frustration and anxiety (Andersen & Guerrero, 1998). To the extent that emotional intelligence includes the ability to perceive others’ emotions (Perceiving Emotions), to understand how emotions transition from one state to another (Understanding Emotions), as well to manage others’ emotions (Managing Emotions), we would expect that emotional intelligence would lead to the demonstration of behaviors associated with mitigating feelings of frustration and anxiety in others (i.e., active listening), and, by extension, effective interpersonal interactions. Additionally, emotional intelligence may facilitate task-oriented behaviors such as information seeking because a key component of the ‘Facilitating Thought’ dimension. It is the ability to assess a problem from multiple perspectives (Mayer & Salovey, 1997), which may predispose one to be more open to considering, or even soliciting, others’ viewpoints. According to emotional intelligence Model by Goleman & Noriah, there were seven elements that divide to four sections. There is self-management, human management, spiritual awareness and maturity. Every each of them has its functions such as a consolidation of the emotional intelligence ensconces. For example, the selfmanagement element focusing on how to study the human awareness with their feel and soul. At the same time, they learn how to control their negative feeling and also know how to motivate themselves. By looking to the element of human management, the objective is focusing on empathy value when people can feel what the other feel and have the good social skills to communicate and interaction with others. Besides that, the spiritual awareness element is the value based on ability of religion grasp to help people launder their heart and soul. Finally, the last element to be discussed is about the status of maturity. Every person is matured on the appropriate time and situation depending the society where they live. Early exposure to the real world where we live by supervision of parents and guardian may help someone maturity. Explaining the dos and the don’ts helps to open their mind to understand issues they faced. 39 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Social Skills Self Regulation EQ MODEL GOLEMAN & NORIAH (2001) Self Motivation Spiritual Maturity Self Awareness Empathy Figure 1. Model of emotional intelligence: Goleman & Noriah (2001) The Importance of Soft Skills Soft skills module has been introduced to the Ministry of Higher Education for college’s curriculum in 2005. Industries required a good result in educations as well as soft skill to be in the team. Versatile employees in education and generic skills considered an asset to the company. In the module, students are taught regarding communication skills, problem solving skills, teamwork, lifelong learning and information management, entrepreneurship, ethic, professional moral and leadership. Sometime the generic skill refers to as "cognitive strategies" and what many cognitive scientists refer to as "domain-independent knowledge." Teamwork Leadership Communication Skills SOFT SKILLS Lifelong Learning & Information Management MODEL Ethic & Professional Moral Problem Solving Skills Entrepreneurship Figure 2. The model of soft skills 40 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey The major kinds of generic skills include thinking skills (such as problem-solving techniques), learning strategies (such as creating mnemonics to help you remember things), and metacognitive skills (such as monitoring and revising your problem-solving techniques or mnemonic-creating techniques). By learning those generic skills, electives modules, proper technical skills and practicing religious ethics; hopefully will make younger Malaysian’s youths competence in industries and balance in all aspect. This is what we mean ‘the firstclass human capital’, a dream form Malaysians citizen in the 2020. SOFT SKILLS DEVELOPING AMONG MALAYSIA STUDENTS 3 2 Your AcademicAdd Centered Text here Supportive Programme Add Your Text ere here Residency 1 Model Add Your Embedded Text here (Infusion) Non Academic Your CenteredAdd Supportive Text here Programme Campus Add Your Text here Surrounding So ft Skills De ve lo p ing Ba se d o f Sup p o rtive Pro g ra m m e Model Stand Add Your Alone Subjects Text here ( Difussion ) So ft Skills De ve lo p ing Ba se d o f C a m p us Life So ft Skills De ve lo p ing Ba se d o f Te a c hing & Le a rning Figure 3. Developing of soft skills In addition of learning specific soft skills, there are moral value included. For instance, students will develop problem-solving skills including engaging with unfamiliar problems and identifying relevant strategies. Students are also will develop an analytical skill - the ability to construct and express logical arguments and to work in abstract or general terms to increase the clarity and efficiency of the analysis. In summary of soft skills they had learnt, the moral value indirectly adapted from it will be tolerant, patient, compromising, hardworking, teamwork, loyalty and many more to mention. Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Soft Skills to Produce the First Class Human Capital We are strongly believed that, to gain the first-class human capital in Malaysian’s context, the emotional intelligence and soft skills should be interrelated. In general, by learning any element soft skill, the students have learnt some elements of emotional intelligence. It just not only enough to have an intelligence quotient (IQ) to be a successful person but the emotional intelligence (EI/EQ) and spiritual quotient (SQ) should be the supplementary in helping to achieve the targeted goal. By implementing the emotional intelligence model in our education system could help to prevent our students from any negative influences. Perhaps, by the implementing the emotional intelligence, all students are believed, able to communicate correctly and showing superior social skills than before. In fact, they also able to control any negative emotion such as being angry, depressed, discontent, frustration and to make their life more comfortable among others in their society. Being close to religious taught and constantly practice what are required, will lead someone to comfortable, calm, peaceful and motivated lifestyle. Every religion is believed to teach their followers to do obedient things and respect each other’s bills of rights. Producing a high quality human capital is Malaysian mission instead of producing quantity population with devastating moral and destructive intellectual. An individual who had showing their high emotional intelligence, prominent intellectual and constant emotion are deserved to call them as the first-class human capital. Making compulsory for every child in Malaysian going to school, creates countless multi discipline learning institutions, abandoning poverty and increase technology literacy will make Malaysian’s populations competence with others developing countries. Therefore, if we could make this thing happen, our mission to be the best among 41 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Asian countries will be not just a dream but it is a faithful reality. Every one of us are deserved to be a leader with the same directional goals and missions in the future. Conclusions In conclusion, we cannot disregard the importance of emotional quotient and soft skills to be in our education system. Of course, any developing countries their opportunity cost could be deprived in societies who live in modern world. The information overload, cultural shock, religious disbelief, immoral practice, corruptions, poverty, domestic criminal, unlawful activities and many more awful things to mention, cold be eliminated if every one of us know where to take part in helping our mission Wawasan 2020 or Vision 2020 become reality. Transforming our nation from traditional work ethics to modern technology making our productivity become overwhelming. It is not impossible to achieve our dream if we could educate our children from early childhood to the higher learning institutions. Always give them a good advice based of religion grasp and perhaps they will follow what is the best for them. The importance of human values and solidarity as a unity in this country should not be forgotten to take into account. Hopefully, this discussion can open our mind and eyes to look deeper into the reality of being developing country and how to align our population into acceptable behavior and thought. Acknowledgements This paper was supported by Universiti Tun Hussein Onn, Malaysia. Gratitude is also due to my colleagues at Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research. References Bar-On, R. (2000). Emotional and Social Intelligence: Insights from The Emotional Quotient Inventory. Bar-On, & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.). The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence (1st ed., pp. 368–388). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. New York: Bantam Book. Habibah Elias & Noran Fauziah Yaakub (1997). Psikologi Personaliti. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. K. T. Strongman (1978). The Psychology of Emotion. Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is Emotional Intelligence? In P. Salovey, & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. (2000). Models of Emotional Intelligence. In R. Sternberg (Ed.), Salovey, P., Mayer, J. D., & Caruso, D. R. (2002). The Positive Psychology of Emotional Intelligence. In C. R. Snyder, & S. J. Lopes (Eds.). Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 159–171). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Internet Resource Wawasan 2020 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wawasan_2020) Author Information Siti Sarawati Johar Zurina Ramli Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia 86400 Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia +60197441212 Contact e-mail: ssarrajoe@gmail.com SK. Tarcisian Convent Ipoh, Perak, Malaysia 42 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 43-62 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Science Literacy for Citizenship: Bridging the Gap. A Delphi Study of Arab and Lebanese Experts Suzanne EL TAKACH Lebanese University Zalpha AYOUBI Lebanese University Abstract: The purpose of the present two-stage Delphi study is to examine how Arab and Lebanese Educators view the relationship of the Science Literacy and Citizenship concepts. It is known that students‟ 21 st century science skills needed are used for being an active and responsible citizen. Many of the academics involved in the research were the Arab and Lebanese Experts who participated in the three-day conference about citizenship in 2014, organized by the Faculty of Education, Lebanese University. A first round survey was carried out, and a questionnaire on Citizenship and Science Literacy was administered via e-mail and returned by 28 experts in Education to Science Education at the Faculties of Education at Arab universities. Experts‟ responses were coded and categorized according to: students‟ citizenship skills, students‟ scientific literacy skills, educational challenges in terms of schools and society, curriculum development, teacher preparation, and the values of a good, digital and global citizen. In the second round survey, experts were again asked to comment on the depicted themes. Experts‟ opinions complemented each other and there were no controversies. All stressed on the diversity and the respect of the other. They all concurred that in order to live in an open society where all are respected one needs to discard and reject any type of discrimination and fanaticism. This research would contribute in: a) making a repertoire of citizenship skills by Arab and Lebanese experts, b) improving the quality of the science courses that tackle the concepts of science literacy and citizenship education at the Faculty of Education, and c) upgrading the in-service training programs that nurture the same concepts. Keywords: Citizenship education, Science literacy, Delphi study, Active citizen, Global citizen Introduction The UNESCO report (2014) on Global Citizenship Education (GCE), states that GCE is a framing paradigm which encapsulates how education can develop the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes learners need for securing a world which is more just, peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, secure and sustainable. In the twenty first century, for instance, students are required to get used to debating multidisciplinary problems such as restricting carbon dioxide emissions in undeveloped or developing countries, or locating a nuclear or disposal facility among local areas. These social-scientific issues should be considered in multiple perspectives that integrate different disciplines (Kim & Aktan, 2014). With the increasing importance and tendency of integration in school curricula of science and citizenship (e.g., Budapest Declaration, 1999; Guo 2014; Frayha, 2004; Inception Report on the Lebanese Education Reform: Citizenship Education, 2013; Mueller et al, 2012; PISA, 2015; UNESCO, 2009), it emerges the importance to know experts‟ views on students‟ skills related to science literacy for citizenship, from an Arab point of view. In general, science Literacy is defined as: “Developing the ability to creatively utilize sound science knowledge in everyday life or in a career, to solve problems, make decisions and hence improve the quality of life.” (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 1997, p 15). Furthermore, it is necessary to relate scientific literacy to an appreciation of the nature of science, personal learning attributes including attitudes and also to the development of social values (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2007). Examples of social values: honesty, awareness of environmental issues, - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey especially environmental sustainable development themes (democracy, human rights, voting, media literacy..) (UNESCO, 2010) which are important for citizenship skills and for thinking skills such as critical and inferential thinking, making an opinion, that are important for science literacy. All of the aforementioned skills are assets for a responsible citizen. In Lebanon, in its survey on education and citizenship: concepts, attitudes, skills and actions, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2008) indicated that civic knowledge amongst 9 th grade students in Lebanon is low compared to their peers in other countries. However, their comprehension of the three main concepts related to citizenship, democracy, good citizen and state responsibilities was relatively high. Results of the Lebanese survey also showed strong support by students for the military role of the state as well as strong patriotic and independent sentiments amongst students, which in part may be a reflection of the general political turbulence that Lebanon is undergoing. Moreover, even though student interest in politics seems to be high, their expectations of political participation appear to be limited – a potential source of future friction. The survey also illustrated the extent, to which student‟s preference for political leaders is guided by their confessional affiliation, reflecting both the nature of Lebanon‟s social makeup and its strong political polarization. In addition, Frayha (2012, p. 112) the former Director of the Centre for Educational Research and Development (CERD) in Lebanon, emphasized that the outcomes of the Lebanese educational system indicate weakness in many aspects of its structure and function. He believed that the current state of the Lebanese educational system leaves little hope with regard to its ability to promote social cohesion and citizenship. To do this, Frayha (2012, p. 111) presented 10 important recommendations, two of these, were training in-service teachers on modern teaching methods, so that teachers are able to form future citizens. He also recommends that there should be regular revisions of the curriculum. Current issues about citizenship and the national identity were grasping more and more attention (e.g., Faour & Muasher, 2011; International conference on Arab citizenship in the new political era, 2014; Drissi, 2014) because the Arab region was lately shaken by severe political turbulence and especially that Lebanon was surviving a violent surrounding. The gathering of academics was essential in order to discuss urgent matters related to citizenship education. Hence, in April 2014, the Faculty of Education, Lebanese University organized a conference in Beirut on the role of the Faculties of Education in Citizenship Education and Identity, where more than 26 deans and professors, from public and private faculties of Education from 10 Arab countries, attended this 3-day conference and they presented their views about citizenship. Thirty two researchers participated with valuable presentations related to the eight themes of the conference. These themes were: 1 - The role of the faculties of education in the preparation of the future teacher in light of globalization and challenges of civilization and knowledge. 2 - Citizenship and identity in the components of the Arab educational systems (philosophies, objectives, curricula, activities, assessment). 3 – The faculties of education and the crisis of identity and belonging among the Arab youth. 4 – The faculties of education and electronic means of communication and the use of electronic means of communication in the process of citizenship education. 5 - The role of faculties of education in education on citizenship and identity at different stages of education. 6 - The role of institutions of socialization and faculties of education in enhancing the life skills of citizens (the skill of dialogue, acceptance of the other opinion, tolerance, pluralism). 7 - Value education in the field of physical education and sports as a form of education in citizenship. 8 - Arab and international experiences in education on citizenship and identity. Noteworthy to say, that more than 150 Arab and Lebanese academics have attended this conference. Their interventions were characterized by enthusiasm for the importance of the subject to every citizen and responsible academic, especially in the faculties of education. As organizing committee members of this conference, we noticed that, on one hand, these experts did not tackle the concept citizenship from a unanimous Arab point of view and on the other hand, we did not talk about standard skills, e.g., in science, needed by students in the 21 st century to becoming future and responsible citizens. Also, we are actually instructors at the Faculty of Education in the Science Education department. We found that it would be meaningful to do in-depth research on this topic Citizenship especially that the core outcome of Science Education is to prepare scientifically literate students and responsible future citizens (AAAS, 1993; PISA, 2015). Moreover, we also noticed that students focused in their learning and teaching practice solely on transmitting the subject matter and it is only in the last year of their regular enrollment at the faculty, that they could develop a more comprehensive approach to students‟ skills and outcomes in science. 44 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey The previous researches done in Lebanon about citizenship Education were about human rights and peace education in the Lebanese civics textbooks (Shuayb, 2015), students‟ concepts of citizenship and learning experiences (Akar, 2007) and civic education and active citizenship in Lebanon (Akar, 2012), but no studies till now tackled the relationship between science literacy and citizenship in Lebanon. This research will help in a) having a clear frame of the concepts Citizenship and Science Literacy from an Arab point of view, and subsequently improving the quality of the science courses at the Faculty of Education regarding Science Literacy. Hence, the purpose of the present research is to examine how Arab and Lebanese Experts view the relationship of the concepts Science Literacy and Citizenship. The research questions are: 1. What are the Experts views about Citizenship? 2. What are the standard skills proposed by the Arab and Lebanese Experts about Citizenship needed in order to develop scientifically literate students? 3. How can we prepare scientifically literate and engaged citizens? And what are the actions and civic skills needed in order to prepare an active citizen in his/ her society/community/country? 4. Are schools and universities preparing a future citizen, global citizen? 5. What are the challenges/obstacles faced in preparing an active citizen in terms of, learning methods, teachers‟ preparation, curricula and students‟ practice? Theoretical Background Science Literacy and Citizenship Education Many associations (AAAS, 1993; NRC, 1996) and numerous educators (Chiapetta et al, 1991; Höttecke, 2001; Lederman, 1998; Mayer, 1997; Miller, 1983) defined the concept of science literacy. In light of these definitions, a science literate person is someone who is familiar with the natural world; understands some of the key concepts and principles of science; has a capacity for scientific ways of thinking; is aware of the important ways in which mathematics, technology, and science depend upon one another; knows that science, mathematics, and technology are human enterprises and what this implies about their strengths and weaknesses; and is able to use scientific knowledge and ways of thinking for personal and social purposes (AAAS, 1993). Moreover, Lederman (1998) stated that science literate person can make informed personal and societal decisions by using scientific knowledge. Chiapetta et al. (1991) identified the four aspects of scientific literacy: 1) the knowledge of science, 2) the investigative nature of science, 3) science as a way of thinking, and 4) the interaction of science, technology and society (STS) (Figure 1). Figure 1. Science literacy (Source : Chiapetta et al, 1991) 45 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Osborne et al (2003) did a 3-round-Delphi study of the „expert‟ community extensive study on what ideasabout-science should be taught in school science. They found that students should learn about the following themes: science and certainty, scientific method and critical testing, hypothesis and prediction, creativity, historical development of scientific Knowledge, diversity of scientific thinking, analysis and interpretation of data, science and questioning. In addition, Duschl (1990) also suggested like other educators (Millar & Osborne, 1998) to pay more attention to teaching explicitly about the nature of science, its epistemic base and the significance of its cultural achievements. Jenkins (1997) identified seven features in an individual that is an ordinary citizen‟s approach to science. Among them were: informed citizens make more discriminating judgments about science and technology related issues: The more informed citizens are about scientific issues, the more they are able to understand the consequences and make better judgment. However, this does not automatically mean that they would necessarily make more rational decisions. Ratcliffe (1998) provides a wider framework for the contribution of three aspects: scientific concepts (content); practical processes, observational, experimental skills (process); and values and beliefs, cultural and historical contexts, social and environmental issues (attitudes) as overlapping. The intersection of the three components provides students with a view of the nature of science (Figure 2). Science education has so far focused on the transmission of content and the process of doing science. However, it is noteworthy that the third aspect of values and beliefs has been somewhat neglected. It is only recently that science educators have turned their attention to the social and ethical implications of science as a response to the hype produced in the media by research activities such as those in the area of cloning and genetically modified organisms or GMOs (Gatt, 2005). Figure 2. Elements of science (Source: Ratcliffe, 1998, p.8) Framework for 21st Century Learning The P21 Partnership for 21st Century Learning defined the Framework for 21st Century Learning; they indicated on their website (www.P21.org), what students should know and be able to do to succeed in the 21st century global economy. Learning & Innovation Skills – The 4C‟s • Critical Thinking and Problem Solving • Communication • Collaboration • Creativity and Innovation Information, Media & Technology Skills • Information, Media & ICT Literacy Life & Career Skills • Flexibility & Adaptability 46 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey • • • • Initiative & Self-Direction Social & Cross-Cultural Skills Productivity & Accountability Leadership & Responsibility Figure 3 displays alignment between 21st Century Citizenship and the Framework for 21st Century Learning (2014). Figure 3. Alignment between 21st century citizenship and the framework for 21 st century learning (source: P2, 2014) Life skills and citizenship education in MENA Region The UNICEF MENA report (2017) proposed life skills defined within the Conceptual and Programmatic Framework (CPF) as cognitive and non-cognitive, higher-order, transversal and transferrable skills for learning, for employability, for personal empowerment, and for active citizenship. The CPF proposed a conceptual and definitional understanding of 21st-century skills based on a four-dimensional model of learning. The LSCE Initiative revisits the concept of life skills and citizenship education in Middle East and North Africa (MENA), while providing a roadmap that is relevant to the regional 21st century context. According to Life Skills and Citizenship Education or LSCE, the development of the CPF has included an extensive mapping and review of national, regional and global definitions that reveal a lack of consensus on what should define and constitute the skills of the 21st century. A set of 12 core life skills for MENA has been identified using the four-dimensional model (Figure 4). They are: creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving, cooperation, negotiation, decisionmaking, self-management, resilience, communication, respect for diversity, empathy and participation. 47 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Figure 4. The 12 core life skills for MENA region (Source: UNICEF MENA report, 2017) The four dimensions of learning are of LSCE: the cognitive dimension or Learning to now, the instrumental dimension or Learning to Do, the individual dimension or Learning to Be and the social dimension or Learning to Live Together. The latter is the ethical dimension that reinforces the vision for citizenship education in MENA. It adopts a human rights-based approach consistent with democratic and social justice values and principles. Teachers and facilitators have a critical role in putting active learning into practice. The experience of successful education reforms indicates that equipping and supporting teachers to practice active learning methods can bring about significant change in learning outcomes and best supports life skills and citizenship education. The role of the teacher is often that of a facilitator, supporting learners as they learn and develop skills. In this approach, it is important that the teacher has a full understanding on the methods that enable the learner to learn effectively. Figure 5 illustrates the main teaching and learning principles that contribute to the development of the 12 core life skills. Figure 5. The main teaching and learning principles of the 12 core life skills (Source: UNICEF MENA report, 2017) 48 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Method Developed by the RAND Corporation in the 1950s, the Delphi technique is an expert survey for ―systematic solicitation and collation of judgments on a particular topic through a set of carefully designed sequential questionnaires interspersed with summarized information and feedback of opinions derived from earlier responses (Delbecq, Van de Ven, & Gustafson, 1975, p.10). The Delphi technique consists of many rounds such as open-ended and Likert-scale surveys, the method is considered as both a qualitative and quantitative approach. (Avella, 2016; Okoli & Pawlowski, 2004). Time management is one important consideration of this method because late responses from certain panel members might slow down its entire process (Wiersma & Jurs, 2009). The current research is a Delphi study and its approach is a mixed research. The data collection tools were two questionnaires on citizenship administered via e-mail, in two stages, to the experts from 2015 up till 2018. The Delphi study includes two rounds; in the 1st round, 28 experts filled in the questionnaire and returned it back by hand or via email. For the quantitative data, the software package, Excel was used. Qualitative data were coded and categorized and themes emerged. In the 2nd round, 15 experts answered to the second questionnaire. The first questionnaire consisted of 11 open-ended questions. The experts answers and comments were coded and categorized according to six themes: good citizen, qualities of a good citizen, qualities of a digital citizen, qualities of a global citizen, science skills to be developed by science teachers to enhance citizenship, actual situation of citizenship teaching skills and obstacles/challenges in terms of: learningteaching methods, teachers‟ preparation, curriculum and student‟s practice. The second questionnaire consisted of seven statements, resuming the experts‟ responses in the first round. Sample Description Participants in this research were Arab and Lebanese academics, some of them participated in the conference about citizenship in 2014. The participant experts were actually teaching at university level. Their field of instruction varied from: General Education, Science Education, Early childhood Education, Philosophy of Education, Psychology, Special Education, Educational Leadership, History, and Citizenship Education. Their teaching experience varied between 3 and 40 years. Results and Discussion In the 1st round and based on data from Questionnaire 1, experts‟ answers were coded and categorized and analyzed. In the 2nd round, Questionnaire 2 was sent to the 28 experts who had filled in the 1 st questionnaire. Experts have to reach to a consensus on the seven statements. Actually, 15 experts filled in and returned Questionnaire 2. They presented their comments and their suggestions for improving the present civic education curriculum. 1st Round Results To research Question 1: What are the Experts views about Citizenship? Table 1 shows the experts emerged answers related to the good citizen. 49 Values and Skills Actions International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 1. What‟s a good citizen? Experts‟ answers and Frequency Knows, respects and applies the laws of his country/abides by the laws (13), tolerance towards others (11), does not steal (10), deals with humanity with others (6), respects and applies the human laws without sexual, religious and social discrimination (5), works on improving his/her community (4), takes initiative in serving his community (4), Uses his knowledge and skills in his personal life and for the welfare of his society and country (4), preserves the public and private properties (4), keeps away from religious and political fanaticism (3), puts his/her country interest before his/her own interest (2), active in social reform (2), pays taxes and doesn‟t steal from the country properties (2), does not accept other nationality (2), preserves his country as his/her family (2), steward of the cultural heritage and the environment (2),treats others the way he/she would like to be treated (1), participates in putting the law (1), respects and celebrates diversity (2), works towards social justice (1), participates in elections (1), participates in the country sociopolitical decision making (1), contributes to the production of knowledge (1), works on the his/her wellbeing, others‟ life and his/her environment (1) Honesty (10), diversity (9), sympathy with other needs (7), critical thinker (6), disciplined (4), accepts and cooperates with the other (3), faithful to his country (3), believes in equality and freedom (3), respects the common values of the country where he/she lives (2), has commitment and loyalty to his/her country and nation (2),respects and upholds the constitution (2), respects oneself and others (2), belongs to his/her country (2), he/she thinks, analyzes and can change his/her mind if he/she convinces (2), self-controlled (2), defends his country whenever there is a need (2), independent (1), self-confident (1), a free person (1), proud of his/her nationality (1), has democratic participation skills (1), knows what he/she consumes (1), has decision making for the public good (1), ready to sacrifice for his/her country and his/her society (1), has opinion and attitude towards social and political issues (1), loves and preserves his/her country as his/her family (1), respects the other even when he/she disagree with them (1) Tables 2, 3 and 4 depict the qualities proposed by the academics of a good citizen, a digital citizen and a global citizen. According to the experts, a good citizen respects first of all the laws and respects private and public properties. He /she has social values and is a critical thinker. A good citizen participates actively in democratic settings, honest, tolerant and respects diversity in society (Table 2). Table 2. Qualities of a good citizen Experts‟ answers Respects the laws Respects the civil and social values Be responsible whether he is a student, teacher, soldier or employee… Respectful Critical thinker Participates in elections/ Voting /democracy Applies critical thinking in his behavior without fanaticism Compassionate/ Be compassionate toward his country Accepts the other Respects diversity of the society Honest Tolerant Participates in civic activity Has scientific reasoning Has initiative Loves his country Respects public and private property Proud of his national identity Has commitment to humans and his country Loyal first to his country 50 Frequency 13 10 8 6 6 5 4 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Self-responsible/responsible Pays willingly taxes and monetary duties Participates in the public service/ helps in solving social problems Open-minded Self-confident Informed decision making Environmentally aware Contributes in development and societal change Takes responsible action for protecting the natural resources of his environment/Earth Participates actively in public issues Cooperates with others regardless of his religious, political and his regional commitment Involved in the voluntary services that contribute positively to the wellbeing of the community Values team work Advocates for the equal human rights for all 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 A digital citizen is able to use ICT, is objective and critical thinker. He/she has ethics, such as, honesty and treats others with respect in online spaces and never cyberbullies. A digital citizen should communicate with others in foreign languages (Table 3). Table 3. Qualities of a digital citizen Experts‟ answers Ethical concerns/Ethics in social media/ respects the civilized behavior and the dialogue in the social media Able to use modern technological tools Interactive with others on the social media Open-minded Respects the intellectual property rights Able to benefit from technology/ uses social media effectively/able to use social media Uses technology /for the service of human being Treats others with respect in online spaces and never cyberbullies Objective Able to make research/construct websites /programming Critical thinker Honest on the social media/ Honesty /integrity Active on the social media Respects privacy, communication and freedom of speech Good use of the internet Use of the internet as search tool Knows foreign languages Responsible Does not steal digital property Frequency 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 Table 4 depicts the educators‟ answers; in their opinions, a global citizen has an open mind, he/she values differences, uses his/her critical thinking skill to judge events from around the world, as well as, respects the environment. A global citizen refuses any sort of discrimination and racism, can communicate in foreign languages and he/she able to use the social media effectively. 51 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 4. Qualities of a global citizen Experts‟ answers Open-minded/ not extremist Respects the other and respects/recognizes/values differences Open to other cultures/open to others Accepts the other Respects the environment Aware of social justice and equity Uses critical thinking in his behaviors/of events from around the world Acts, individually and with others, to improve the economic, cultural, social and environmental status of the world Knows foreign languages Exhibits actions that can contribute to the overall wellbeing of the global community, such as the global warming Committed to the international law of human rights and the charters regulating relations between states and individuals Refuses any racial and ethnical discrimination Tolerant/ tolerance of various opinions and multiple perspectives Uses technology Able to use social media Believes in social justice, freedom and democracy takes initiatives in solving local and global health and environmental issues/environmental concerns To free himself of prejudices and old stereotypes Refuses any kind of discrimination and racism Has interests about issues outside his country Considers \ cultural varieties as richness to the humanity Honesty /integrity Aware of his national identity Interested and concerned about the global environment Defends the rights of minorities Aware of the dangers of blind nationalism Engages in international humanitarian organizations Collaborates with NGOs and other partners to make the world a more equitable and sustainable place Is proficient in using technological means of communication such as internet or other Exchanges experience and knowledge Believes in equality among people and nations irrelevant of the color, religion and prosperity or backwardness Realizes that this planet is for all people and ethnicities Frequency 8 7 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 To research Question 2: What are the standard skills proposed by the Arab and Lebanese Experts about Citizenship needed in order to develop scientifically literate students? In order to answer this question, all experts were asked a) to answer the question: what skills do you ask from science instructors to develop in students in order to prepare future active citizens? and b) science educators were asked to answer the question: What skills in science do you think we should develop in order to prepare future citizens? Their responses were categorized according to the 4 aspects of science literacy (Chiapetta et al, 1991). Data tabulated in Table 5, show that educators tend to mention skills related to the aspect 3 of science literacy, or science as a way of thinking. 52 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 5. Experts‟ answers analysis according to science literacy Aspects of Science literacy Aspect 1 Aspect 2 Aspect 3 (Science as a (Investigative (Science as a way body of nature of of thinking) knowledge Science) Frequency= 1 Frequency= 14 Frequency= 27 Educators (N= 22) updates his/her lab work skills, Decision making teaching, research skills, skills, scientific organization, thinking, scientific puts rules for reasoning, each work, enthusiasm, respect analysis, selfinstructions and confident, regulations, objective, positive experimentation, thinking, respects develops himself and the independent others, probleminquirer, solving skill, scientific creativity, open to method, inquiry, different ideas, discovery, group work, communication, respects the engages students intellectual in interactive property, does not discussion and make plagiarism, debate, role-play takes initiatives, regarding tolerant, critical citizenship, thinking, design cooperation, citizenship respect of other activities for rights, students responsibility, open-minded, being skeptical, collaborates with others for finding solutions to local and global problems, conflict resolution skills, creates a safe classroom environment that encourages students to express their own values and opinions Frequency= 1 Frequency= 4 Frequency= 12 Science Intellectual Discovery, Honesty, integrity, Educators ( N= 6) skills such as; problem solving, skepticism, knowledge in practical perseverance, science, analytical skill, processes skills communication, decision making, collaboration, reflection, selflearning skills, open minded, curiosity, Argumentation Experts (N=28) 53 Aspect 4 (STS) Frequency= 9 Knows how to use ICT, relates science with real life situation and daily problems, develops social skills and not only emphasize on intellectual skills, promotes social justice awareness, ethical, active participation, engagement, democratic skills, sense of responsibility towards global issues that threaten humans Frequency= 1 Integration of technology International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey skills, especially on teaching socioscientific issues, evidence based learning To research Question 3: How can we prepare scientifically literate and engaged citizens? And what are the actions and civic skills needed in order to prepare an active citizen in his/ her society/community/country? To answer this question, Table 6 represents details of educators‟ various points of view and it indicates the actions suggested by the experts, categorized into themes: family, school and society. Table 7 represents experts‟ views about skills and values needed to prepare an active citizen in his/ her society/community/country? Table 6. Experts‟ actions to be taken for preparing scientific literate and engaged citizens Family/Society School/University Do not impose his ideas on others Encourage social activities (artistic, A family that elevates her sons and daughters on environmental, scout) dialogue, tolerance and acceptance of the other Developing scientific values Show respect Changing curricula Family has an important role by building up behaviors Changing training programs curricula and and values that concentrate on the sense of responsibility teaching methodologies encourage discussion in a democratic atmosphere and Engage students in debates on moral, ethical and respects children rights in expression and the rights to societal issues related to their lives and the learn and to get access to knowledge Mingle with others human nature from different sectarian and religious background. This Teaching evaluation skills to assess quality of can lessen fanaticism information sources and provided evidences Strengthen family ties Continuous follow-ups and evaluation of Take part in national ceremonies teachers Encourage honesty in daily routine Participates in social and humanitarian organizations Changing laws Provides the followings: a society based on knowledge and not on sectarian feelings Involve students in community services Media information in general about science Put Legislations and accountability system for irresponsible actions that harm oneself and other people Voting Volunteering in civic and social institutions Participates in social and humanitarian organizations Modeling good citizenship through media 54 Changing conditions for recruiting in-service teachers A school that builds the personality of the student differently as it is now, where the actual system is based on isolation and sectarian feelings A university relies on critical thinking, that requires a teaching staff with international and scientific thinking Make the university time a space of interaction that leads to break rigid frames and models Institutions based on transparency and questioning Put common objectives for all schools Provide students with the opportunity to take decisions regarding their learning Use technology to enhance student discussion of issues that impact their lives through videoconferencing and forums Encourage students to propose solutions to worldwide problems. Encourage reading, reading, reading… Teach through inquiry Insist on the importance of general culture, science and humanities and including culture in the core of curricula and media programs Ensure occasions for students‟ participation and Provide them the opportunity to be informed with cultural and scientific in the world Review the curricula and to include national International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey textbooks with the elements of citizenship, that can be used in class activities Change the teaching methods used by teachers in a way that they adopt active teaching that involve learners in the teaching process Emphasis on the 4 aspects of science literacy of Chiapetta et al (1991) Reinforcing students‟ spiritual, moral and cultural skills Include history of science and not only scientific facts and discoveries. In this way, student can learn how science reveals and solves controversies, so the society develops and progresses through changing, renewed and revised scientific theories Teach students to listen to all, especially those who are different Teach students to examine information carefully, in order to make sure it is true and real Teach them cooperative learning groups Teacher should explain to students what “scientific” truly means and entails, i.e., what is science? What is an experiment? What is evidence-based? Engage students in community services Creating a shared vision and a common understanding of what we mean by a good citizenship and more importantly, how one can be a global citizenship respecting and caring diversity of mankind, and caring for the whole Earth Designing curricular activities to achieve all objectives related to citizenship Developing a reliable assessment that measures student progress toward the desired goals related to citizenship Promoting and encouraging community services, locally and world-wide Develop the spirit of participation in children and stimulate social sense through volunteering and teamwork Ensure that proper measure and consequences are applied when a citizen breaks the rules Stimulate the culture of diversity and acceptance of the other Develop the spirit of personal responsibility Teacher preparation that serves the formation of active citizen, include this goal in school message and official curricula and to realize this goal in the form of extracurricular activities. Coordination between social educational institutions (family, school, media..) in order to prepare an active citizen Encourage students to plant and to take care of their growth, in order to get attached to his land To shift from the concept of receptive teaching to Productive learning Allow students to develop their skills at school by providing a democratic school culture Teach “how” to think, not “what” to think 55 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 7. Experts‟ needed values and skills to prepare an active citizen Values and Skills Moral and social values such as, Ethics. Tolerance Community service and societal and Responsibility. Accountability. Trustworthiness. environmental level Compassion. Fair and just. Honesty. Integrity, perseverance, listens to others, respects the other Develop critical thinking, and thinking outside the Leadership box Self-assessment Take initiative Develop communication and investigation skills Attachment to national identity To be informed citizens, responsible and aware of Teach students to respect rules and laws (stand in their duties and rights the line, stop on the red light..) Get rid of egocentrism Awareness of own and others‟ rights Develop participation skills Participation in the political process Be responsible Conflict resolution and negotiation skills Develop self- confident Autonomous thinking Aware that decision-making needs to be based on Evidence-based decision making scientific evidences Develop communication, intellectual and critical Argumentation thinking skills, self- thinking skill Loves discovery and scientific knowledge, Sensitivity to group differences and mutual skeptical, resists intimidation, not to be naïve understanding of others Scientific thinking Develop self-confidence Critical thinking Creative skills Communication Thinks positively Decision-making Discovery Group work skill Objective To Research Question 4: Are schools and universities preparing a future citizen, global citizen? All experts agreed that because of receptive learning, civic education doesn‟t help in developing learner personality. Most agreed that we need interactive and active teaching strategies in order to better teach this discipline. And that student behavior reflects his family and society. In Lebanon, for instance, Lebanese experts pointed out that Lebanese civic education curriculum does not include about citizenship and not about digital and global citizen too. Here are some excerpts of academics‟ views: Expert 10 (Science Education): Even though I cannot generalize because there is no research on the topic, I do not think that there is a concerted effort in schools to prepare active and productive citizens. This is possibly due to the curriculum examination system, as well as teaching practices. Expert 12 (History of Education): Schools in Lebanon do not certainly prepare future citizens not on the national level. This is because of the actual relation in school at the level of teacher-school curricula and behavior. The relation between teacher-student is a copy of the authoritarian relation of the parents at home. Student cannot develop his personality differently than his parents by expressing his opinions about issues related to his life. Even tasks and research students should do is based on copying information without discussion them and interaction. The school-university system is producing a citizen copy of his parents and the teaching staff. He is a receptive person ready to get instructions and to follow them without criticizing or discussion them. Expert 20 (Special Education): Yes we prepare future citizens through teacher preparation programs. Our learning methods utilize recent technological advancements, experiential and reflective teaching approaches and empowering students, who become effective teachers/leaders in the community. Students are affected with their environment and surroundings. What happens nowadays in Lebanon and the Arab countries affects students morally and psychologically and it affects their behaviors too. Unfortunately, the school is an open place and it interacts continuously with the outside environment. I think that schools can students immunize against negative external actions and behaviors but what we see as taken actions is not enough. Expert 26 (Psychology): I do not think all schools are and some are only doing a partial job. Global citizenship is a concept and framework that should be embedded in all areas, act is not in most schools. 56 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey To Research Question 5: What are the challenges/obstacles faced in preparing an active citizen in terms of, learning methods, teachers‟ preparation, curricula and students‟ practice? Arab and Lebanese universities experts showed a pessimistic view about civic education at school and university levels, teacher training programs and student practice. All experts agreed on the outdated curricula and they approved that teacher preparation and intensive training programs for in-service teachers lack the development of teachers‟ skills related to citizenship and how they can include citizenship skills in their disciplines. Experts presented a wide spectrum of answers. Here are some excerpts: Expert 4 (General Education): Dependence on lecture strategy. This does not contribute to the development of a citizen personality, but pushes him towards memorization and not search and cooperation. Teachers cannot develop in their students’ citizenship skills if they did not know about citizenship education. Teachers should learn about civic education during training programs, but one course is not enough. Moreover, instructors who will teach this course should be specialists and not instructors who read a book or a paper about citizenship. In general, curricula include some citizenship elements, but we need to realize the citizenship objectives. If curricula developers and teachers are not well informed about citizenship, then nothing positive will occur. Students’ behaviors are the end-of-product of civic education. What we see in most students’ behaviors does not reflect any influence of the school civic education in developing their personality. Students are still copying their parents’ extremist attitudes and this reflects the weak role of the school. Expert 5 (Early Childhood Education): Teaching strategies rely on memorization and they do not opportunity for students to construct an opinion and attitude. Not renewable, active learning but not group learning. Teachers are not democratic; do not renew their teaching and knowledge. They do not know the basics of group work. Not updated and renewed. Dense and overloaded. Topics not related to students’ interests. School and curricula isolated from society. Concentration on isolation skills (family, then parents, then district, village and finally the city and no indication of the global context). Cold curricula and faraway of anything that can cause sensitivity and therefore curricula have weak or negative impact. Expert 2 (General Education): Teaching methods in majority do not respect active learning that allows the construction of scientific thinking. Curricula and teaching methods are still concentrating on knowledge and do not contribute for the construction of skills and competencies of active learning. Curricula concentrate on knowledge and assessment measures the low-achievement thinking levels (memorization, comprehension, application). Students’ behaviors are linked to their environment: family and society. Expert 3 (Science Education): The existing educational system and the people who run it. Emphasis on memorization in national exams. Low teacher salaries. Low quality teacher preparation systems. Lack of respect of the teaching professions. Lack of control over the entrance into teaching. Hegemony of testing. The dense curriculum with content that is not up-to-date. Focus on knowledge rather than thinking skills. Lack of relevance of the content students’ lives. Student behavior is a reflection of the low quality curriculum and teaching. 2nd Round Results The 2nd round, Questionnaire 2 was filled in by 15 out of the 28 experts, involved in the study. After coding the experts‟ comments, experts‟ responses were summarized in the form of statements and they were acknowledged by the experts. These statements are figured below (Figure 6). 57 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Statement 1: A good citizen is an active citizen who respects his country‟s laws and serves it. Statement 2: For the quality of a good citizen, educators emphasize on: Respecting the civil and social values, Being responsible, compassionate toward others‟ needs, Accepting and respecting the other, Respecting diversity and being tolerant, Developing scientific reasoning and most of all, he/she has “critical thinking skill”, Has a vast general culture, Being involved in community service. Statement 3: For educators, the digital citizen is: Honest and has integrity on the social media, Able to benefit and to use technology and social media effectively, Has ethics in social media, Respecting privacy, communication and freedom of speech, A critical thinker, Respecting the intellectual property rights. Statement 4: For educators, the global citizen is: Active on the global level, Present and engaging in international humanitarian organizations, Tolerant, open to other cultures Able to communicate with many languages and with modern technological tools, Open-mind and valuing diversity. Statement 5: Experts agreed that because of receptive learning, civic education doesn‟t help in developing learner personality. They agree that we need interactive and active teaching strategies in order to better teach this discipline. And that student behavior reflects his family and society. Statement 6: Experts agreed on the outdated curricula, and that civic education curriculum does not include about citizenship and not about digital and global citizen too. Statement 7: Experts agreed that teacher preparation and intensive training programs for in-service teachers lack the development of teachers‟ skills related to citizenship and how they can include citizenship skills in their disciplines. Figure 6. The majors point of views of experts A consensus was reached and experts presented their comments on the study; they have commented on the teaching and student practice, as well as on the actual civic education in schools. Also, they suggested ways to improve teaching about citizenship in schools, such as practical activities linked with theory and students‟ participation in civil society service. Some experts‟ answers are represented below: Expert 1 (Science Education): I completely agree on statement, regarding the qualities of a good citizen, although it is very hard to attain. On the quality of a good citizen, developing scientific reasoning and having critical thinking skills are not found in most of the population. To attain the digital citizenship, it is very optimistic to attain. Emphasis on nature of science and citizenship in schools at the secondary level. Expert 16 (Philosophy of Education): I agree with all the statements, but in an ideal society. To attain these goals, it is not a realistic approach. Yes, we should always update our education skills. I surely believe that workshops and conferences will improve our teachers’ abilities and skills. For primary schools, students should learn about civic education, as for middle schools, students should learn about civic education and legal studies. I hope that this ideal study could be adapted in our country, where we are facing reality with all its challenges. Expert 4 (General Education): In general, I can say that’s correct. If we are talking about the Lebanese curricula, they are outdated. But still the civics curriculum includes many components of citizenship. But not much about digital and global citizen. But at the Faculty of Education we have a course on citizenship education. If it’s taught as it should, the students can benefit from it in their teaching and class activities. This is the experts’ opinion but not everybody involved in education. Some people teach discrimination to their students. What can we say about them? Expert 5 (Early Childhood Education): For Statement 7, I do not think there is a need to teach citizenship at the university level. Civil behavior is being taught in the early stages of education. I think it is appropriate for 58 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey trainee teachers to know the laws related to their profession and their moral duties. As for topics to be included in the school curricula: Getting to know the idea of law. Why? (Topics in primary level), Identify the institutions that establish the laws and their functions (topics in middle school) and Citizenship and its relationship to laws, duties, ethics (topics in secondary level). Expert 3 (Science Education): For Statement 5, there is a need to link what is taking place at the school with the world outside the school for students to really understand the meaning of civic education. Even though interactive and inquiry learning are important, what is more important is how the ideas learned in school impact how students behave in real-life. Project based learning, service learning, team based learning and problem based learning (among many other similar experiential learning activities) are essential for students to develop civic responsibility. Expert 21 (Psychology): Topics in primary level (learn about the national anthem; recognize the national flag, its colors and symbols; the national archeological monuments; the national customs and traditions; learn about the environment and conservation; the health rules and health behavior), topics in middle school (citizen’s' rights and duties; social values, such as, cooperation, tolerance, respect ...; social responsibility; values of citizenship: national unity, environmental awareness, health awareness, economic awareness, political responsibility, social responsibility, belonging...; national belonging; freedom of expression; security and peace), topics in secondary level (national identity; democracy; discrimination; the individual's relationship with the state; State institutions; State authorities; Public ownership and private property). Conclusion The aim of this study was to provide an expert view about a) the skills to be developed by science teachers in order to prepare future citizens, b) citizenship actual reality, challenges and perspectives in Lebanon and the Arab countries. Overall, educators emphasize on reforming school curricula, teaching methods and in-service teacher training programs. In addition, developing students‟ scientific reasoning and having a vast general culture, involve students in community service. Many educators emphasized on the role of the family, the school and the media. Experts underlined the importance to develop students‟ skills related to science as a way of thinking or the nature of science aspect of science literacy. Above all, many believed that there should be a focus on what actions this citizen takes rather than only what she/he believes in. Also, the experts have suggested topics in civic education through the school levels. All experts agreed that because of receptive learning, civic education doesn‟t help in developing learner personality. Most agreed that we need interactive and active teaching strategies in order to better teach this discipline. And that student behavior reflects his family and society. All agreed that teacher preparation and intensive training programs for in-service teachers lack the development of teachers‟ skills related to citizenship and how they can include citizenship skills in their disciplines. Lebanese and Arab universities experts have a pessimistic view about civic education at school and university levels, teacher training programs and student practice. All experts agreed on the outdated curricula, and that Lebanese civic education curriculum does not include about citizenship and not about digital and global citizen too. Finally, experts‟ opinions complemented each other and there were no controversies. All stressed on the diversity and the respect of the other. They refused any type of discrimination and fanaticism, to live in an open society where all are respected. At the Faculty of Education, Lebanese University, the course citizenship education is currently a compulsory course and students in all majors, at the Faculty of Education, Lebanese University, who are attending this course in their last semester of their Bachelor degree. The course objectives are: 1. Instilling in student‟s consciousness the basic skills of citizenship education and contemporary democratic concepts and values of the civil society. 2. Interfering in civic education by activating the role of the school in developing a responsible and participating citizen. 3. Training to change the classroom into an interactive setting with students, to build for the culture of dialogue and independent and free decision-making attitudes, and to developing critical thinking skills. This study emphasized on the importance of students, at school and university levels, to take actively part in civic and societal tasks and not only to learn about theories about civic and citizenship duties and rights. Note that, this research is part of a larger project with the sample participants, undergraduate students and the training programs regarding citizenship education at the Faculty of Education. 59 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey This study reveals its importance, due to the followings: 1. The study sample is formed of Arab and Lebanese Experts in the field of Citizenship Education, science education and general education. 2. Contribution of this research in: a) making a repertoire of citizenship skills by Arab and Lebanese experts, b) assessing to improving the quality of the science courses that tackle the concept of Science Literacy in their syllabi and c) collect the needed students‟ science skills used for being an active citizen, from the point of view of the experts. Recommendations and Limitations Results of the present study match greatly with the Beirut conference on citizenship education. The study shows the actual situation of citizenship education from the Arab and Lebanese experts‟ points of views. It also reveals in details the realities, challenges and obstacles, as well as approaches to reach the goal of preparing a future Arab citizen, living in a modern society, where democracy, tolerance, diversity and welfare prevail. The three-day conference on Citizenship in the Arab World ended with important recommendations, one of them is to activate research on citizenship education in universities and schools. Also, the recommendations highlighted the various presentations of ideas and proposals that developed the theme of the conference, where participants agreed that "the destiny of education is to build a rational citizen able to have attitudes and make decisions, and armed with a mind of critical knowledge ". Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the social, political and human values and concepts when developing the curricula of the faculties of education and to work towards the engraving of the concept and practice of democracy in the faculties of education. In a way, that the faculties of education in the Arab world would prepare to face the post-conflict phase that some Arab societies are living today, to activate the channels of dialogue, conferences and specialized research in citizenship education, to improve the common vision and create quality standards in order to improve the performance of these faculties and functions assigned to them, especially in terms of citizenship education, and to discuss the current situation and challenges faced by the Arab culture as a result of cultural invasion. Future research on students, in the school and university levels and science and civic education teachers are encouraged. The limitation of this study is that experts involved in this study do not reflect all the Arab experts‟ opinions, who participated to the Beirut Conference in 2014, because the sample is not representative of all the 22 Arab countries. 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Author Information Suzanne El Takach Zalpha Ayoubi Lebanese University, Faculty of Education Unesco Area Beirut / Lebanon Contact E-mail: suzanneeltakach@ul.edu.lb Lebanese University, Faculty of Education Unesco Area, Beirut / Lebanon 62 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 69-75 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Implementation of Teaching Skills Learned by Trained Teachers for Teaching Science Subjects at Secondary School level Shahida SAJJAD Dadabhoy Institute of Higher Education Abstract: The given study aimed collecting facts and information about the state of professional competence of science teachers in secondary schools, and its effectiveness to communicate the requisite knowledge; where in the extent of the training given to the teachers for teaching science in secondary school is to be determined. The data was collected from nine private and nine public secondary schools located in Karachi by interviewing 54 trained teachers selected through convenience sampling, having a Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree and who were teaching science subjects at secondary level of school. The results reveal that there is less coordination between the actual teaching of science in secondary schools in Karachi and the training given to the teachers for teaching science although the government spent a lot of money on this training. The ineffective teaching is due to lack of; teaching aids, laboratory facilitates in schools, and lesson planning by teacher. Mostly teachers explain the experiments through text book only. It is recommended that the schools should be supplied with audio visual aids and necessary laboratory equipment, and the teaching load on the science teacher is reduced to have enough free. Keywords: Teaching skills, Trained teachers, Teaching science Introduction A considerable number of student in our country Pakistan are not much interested in learning science subjects because they know very little about its importance and take it as a difficult subject. There are many reasons for that. One of these may be that the teachers do not teach the students in an effective way. The knowledge is given to the students only with the help of prescribed text-books. The opportunities of performing experiments are not provided to the students whereas science is based on facts which can be proved by experiments. The teachers teach science subjects without demonstrating the experiments. Although they are trained to teach science with demonstration method, Heuristic method etc. but they do not use these methods in actual teaching and neglect the psychological needs of the students. The result of teaching Science without demonstration is that the students do not understand the facts, therefore, the curiosity of getting further knowledge diminishes. The question arises why the teachers do not use these methods which had taught them during their professional training in actual daily teaching or why there is a divergence between the training and day to day actual teaching on the job. This is the age of science and technology. If we want to develop our country, we must make progress in the field of science and technology. It is possible only when our students take interests in areas of knowledge. New inventions are coming up almost every movement. But how? Not without tears and perspiration. Different experiments are performed to prove different facts and to make new discoveries. But the students themselves in our schools do not have an opportunity and inspiration to perform the simplest experiments, which they can without the help of laboratory equipment. They are reared to learn through rote memory or they are negligent to what has been taught puts an embargo on their curiosity which could have otherwise help them to develop their mind on an intellectual plane. Therefore, it is required to train the teachers in such a way that their training may have no conflicts with the actual teaching in the class room. - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey The teachers should be trained to teach by such methods which can produce curiosity and interest in students even in the absence of facilities. We are poor in resources and our schools cannot afford to build up the expensive laboratories. The schools cannot provide requisite equipment for the students. Many methods of teaching science cannot be used in our schools because of the same reason. It is therefore required to use only those methods which suit to our environmental conditions. The given study aimed collecting facts and information about the state of professional competence of science teachers in secondary schools, and its effectiveness to communicate the requisite knowledge; where in the extent of the training given to the teachers for teaching science in secondary school is to be determined. The specific objective of the research is to find out whether the training given to the teachers for teaching science is applied in our secondary schools or not. If not, then, the objective is always the cause of its failure. Method This was an exploratory research and the researcher selected stratified random sampling. The researcher collected data from nine private and nine public secondary schools located in Karachi. Three trained teachers having a Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree and who were teaching science subjects at class VIII, IX and X were selected through convenience sampling from each school thus making sample size as 54 trained teachers. The data was collected with the help of structured questionnaire by interviewing the respondents. The items of questionnaire were closed ended to secure uniformity of response patterns. To secure the reliability of the questionnaire, the language of the items was kept simple and straight forward and pretesting was made on five B.Ed. science teachers teaching at secondary level. The questionnaire consisted of thirteen closed ended items. In this study, % method was used for analyzing data. Results and Discussions The findings of the study are given below in table number 1- 9 based on research questions. Research question 1: How do school plan, organize and schedule classes for effective teaching of science subjects? Planning, organization & schedule of classes was identified through; number of students in class., duration of science period and number of science periods per week in time table. Table 1. Number of students in class and duration of science period Response N % No. of students in class 10 - 19 02 3.70 20 - 29 02 3.70 30 - 39 04 7.41 40 or above 40 46 85.19 Total 54 100 Duration of science period 30 minutes 42 77.78 35 minutes 12 22.22 Above 40 minutes 00 00 Double period 00 00 Total 54 100 Table1 shows that majority of the teachers (85.19%) had 40 or above 40 students in their class. The table also shows that none of the teachers have science period above 35 minutes duration; none of the teachers have double period of science. And majority of the teachers (77.78%) have science period of 30 minutes duration. 70 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 2. Number of science periods and free period Response Number of Science periods in a week 4-5 periods Above 5 periods Total Teachers having a free period before Always taking science period Sometimes Never Total N 36 18 54 12 36 06 54 % 66.67 33.33 100 22.22 66.67 11.11 100 Table 2 shows that majority of the teachers (66.67%) have 4-5 periods/week and majority of the teachers (66.67%) have free period before taking science period only sometimes. Conclusion: Teaching of science subjects was not effective due to overcrowded classes, short duration of science periods and insufficient number of science periods. Research question 2: What facilities are provided by school for effective teaching of science subjects? Facilities provided by school for effective teaching of science subjects were measured in terms of; having all the laboratory equipment and chemicals, charts, models and other teaching aids. Table 3. Facilities at school Response Having all lab. Equipment and chemicals Yes No Total Having charts, models and other suitable Yes gadgets No Total N 06 48 54 % 11.11 88.89 100 06 48 54 11.11 88.89 100 Table 3 shows that majority of the schools do not have all laboratory equipment and chemicals and charts, models and other teaching aids according to the syllabus (88.89% each). Conclusion: Teaching of science subjects was not effective due to the lack of teaching aids and lack of laboratory facilitates in schools. Research question 3: What teaching strategies are used by teachers for effective teaching of science subjects? Teaching Strategies used by teachers for effective teaching of science subjects included; planning lessons, starting lesson based on previous knowledge, and use of questioning skills by teacher throughout teaching. Table 4. Teaching strategies used by teachers Response Teaching through lesson Yes planning No Total How to begin a new lesson Response Introducing the new lesson with questions from previous knowledge Directly introducing a new lesson Total N 12 42 54 % 22.22 77.78 100 04 7.41 50 54 92.59 100 Table 4 shows that majority of the teachers (77.78%) do not use lesson planning technique in teaching and majority of the teachers (92.59%) do not use the principles of effective teaching based on previous knowledge. 71 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 5. Use of questioning skills by teacher throughout teaching Response N % During the stage of presentation 10 18.52 During the stage of recapitulation 40 74.07 Both during presentation and recapitulation 04 7.41 Total 54 100 Table 5 shows that only 18.52% teachers ask the question during the stage of presentation and 74.07% ask the questions during the stage of recapitulation. So, all of them do not use questioning throughout teaching. Only few i.e. 7.41% teachers ask the question both the time, so they use questioning skills necessary for effective teaching. Conclusion: Teaching of science subjects was not effective due to lack of lesson planning by teacher, lack of introducing a new lesson based on previous knowledge and lack of questioning skills by teacher. Research question 4: What teaching methodologies are used by teachers for teaching science subjects? Teaching methodologies used by teachers for teaching science subjects included; teaching with the help of science text book in class, reading from the text book during teaching, use of laboratory for necessary preparation before teaching a lesson, and methods used by teacher for explaining the experiments. Table 6. Teaching through science book in class Response N Always 44 Sometimes 06 Never 04 Total 54 % 81.48 11.11 7.41 100 Table 6 shows that majority of the teachers (81.48%) always take the help of Science book in the class to explain the lesson. Table 7. Reading from the text book during teaching Response N Lesson reading from the text book by the students 28 Lesson reading from the text book by the teacher 16 Lesson reading from the text book by both turn by turn 10 Total 54 % 51.85 29.63 18.52 100 Table 7 shows that majority of the teachers (48.15%) take the help of students for reading the lesson from the text book. Table8. Use of laboratory before teaching a lesson Response N always 00 sometimes 06 Never 48 Total 54 % 00 11.11 88.89 100 Table 8 shows that majority of the teachers (88.89%) never go to lab for making necessary preparation before teaching a lesson. Table 9. Method used by teacher for explaining experiments Response With the help of charts By oral method i.e. without any teaching aid. By actually doing the experiment by the teacher in class room By actually doing the experiments by the students in laboratory under the guidance of teacher 72 N 08 44 02 00 % 14.82 81.48 3.70 00 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Total 54 100 Table 9 shows that majority of the teachers (81.48%) orally explain the experiments. There is no such teacher whose students perform the experiments by themselves under the guidance of teacher. Conclusion: Teaching of science subjects was not effective due to use of recitation method of teaching science, lack of use of laboratory method for teaching science and explaining the experiments through text book only. If we see the actual teaching of science in secondary schools in Karachi and the training given to the teachers for teaching science, we come to know that there is less coordination between the two. There may be many reasons for that as given below. In actual daily teaching, every teacher must take five to six periods daily whereas the science teacher should have enough free periods for the preparation for performing the experiments. Specially teacher should have a free period just before the period in which she/he must teach science. In that period the apparatus can be set for performing the experiments and to save time. Duration of the period is not enough to perform the experiments. In our schools the duration of a period is between 30 minutes to 35 minutes and this time is not enough to perform any experiment. In teachers’ training college/institute the prospective teachers are told to prepare the lesson notes before taking a class, during the practice of teaching. But in actual teaching the teachers do not prepare the lesson notes because if they do this, then they will be able to complete only a small portion of the syllabus, whereas the schools in our country also remain closed off and on. Facilities are provided by school for effective teaching of science subjects For effective teaching teachers use audio visual aids, charts, models, etc. but in our schools specially in the Government Schools there are no teaching aids at all. In the laboratories the equipment is very few and not enough for all the students. Fraser, Classroom & School climate (1994), affirms the importance of activities and experiments-based science studies always encourages healthy learning. Studies show the importance of classroom environment which contribute to the alteration in the psychological factors of students and emotional outcomes (Walberg, 2004) and effect student accomplishment and attitudes (Walberg, 2006). Teaching strategies used by teachers for effective teaching of science subjects During the training the teachers motivate the students before starting the lesson but in actual teaching the teachers do not care about it. They directly write the topic on the black-board or orally tell the topic. In teachers training the teachers are not allowed to take the book to the classroom. They prepare the lesson and learn by heart the subject matter. In actual teaching the teachers usually adopt the recitation methods in which passages from the text book are read loudly by the teachers or by the students in the class. According to the training the teachers should start a new lesson by asking the questions from previous knowledge where as in actual teaching the teachers directly start a new topic. The teachers are trained to ask the questions during presentation and recapitulation but in actual teaching majority of the teachers do not ask the questions both the times. They ask the question only during the stage of recapitulation and not during presentation to save the time. The skills of the teaching acquired during training are not utilized by the teachers in actual teaching. Teaching methodology The study highlighted that new methods of teaching like laboratory method, Heuristic method and demonstration methods are not used by the teachers due to the large no of students, lack of teaching aids and other resources, small duration of science periods etc. Instead of that recitation method or lecture method is commonly used. Many researchers criticized lecture method as a one – way communication process which lacks discussion, questioning or immediate practice (Hatim, 2001; Al-Rawi, 2013), subject centered rather student centered (Al-Rawi, 2013), based on instructions given by teacher rather exploration by students (Miles, 2015), lacks active learning approach (Berry, 2008), causing bad reading habit among the students (Fagen & Mazur, 2003) and lacks activity based learning (Franklin, Sayre, & Clark, 2014). 73 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Many researchers argued the usefulness of demonstration method of teaching as; it improves students' understanding and retention (McKee, Williamson, & Ruebush, 2007), it is effective in teaching skills of using tools and laboratory experiment in science (Al Rawi, 2013). However, the time available to perform this demonstration is very limited in a classroom setting. Therefore, a demonstration often designed to allow students to make observations instead performing themselves (McKee, Williamson & Ruebush, 2007). The finding show that new techniques of training are not used by the teachers due to the shortage of time. These techniques take a long time and the schools in our country remain close off and on so the syllabus cannot be finished in time if these techniques are used by the teaches. Miles (2015) argued that a teacher need to use variety of instructional strategies to bring academic success to science students. Similarly, Nguyen, Williams, and Nguyen (2012) emphasized the use of a teaching method that is based on social interaction between students and teacher for effective learning and achieving good results. Tobin (1990) stated that the laboratory method of teaching enables students to learn science concepts by doing various activities. Conclusion The results concluded that there is a lack of coordination between the actual teaching of science in secondary schools in Karachi and the training given to the teachers for teaching science although the government spent a lot of money on this training. The ineffective teaching is due to lack of; teaching aids, laboratory facilitates in schools, and lesson planning by teacher. Mostly teachers explain the experiments through text book only. It is recommended that the schools should be supplied with audio visual aids and necessary laboratory equipment, and the teaching load on the science teacher is reduced to have enough free time for the preparation of experiments in the laboratory. Recommendations The number of science teachers should be increased so that the teaching load on the science teacher is reduced and to have enough free time for the preparation of experiments in the laboratory. The ratio between the number of students and number of teachers should be appropriate so the teachers can pay individual attention to the students. The number and duration of science periods should be increased. The science teachers should have double periods of science to perform the experiments easily. They have a free period just before taking the science period so that they can do the necessary preparation for performing the experiments. Science teacher should be given workload in a way to prepare short outlines for teaching 4-5 science lessons per day. All the schools should be supplied with audio visual aids and necessary laboratory equipment. The teachers can also take the help of the students in preparing teaching aids. The research on this topic should be done on a large scale to find out the reasons that why the teachers training is not utilized by the teachers although the government spent a lot of money on this training. References Al-Rawi, I. (2013). Teaching methodology and its effects on quality learning. Journal of Education and Practice, 4(6), 100-105. Berry, W. (2008). Surviving lecture: A pedagogical alternative. College Teaching, 56(3), 149-153. Dorman, J. P. (2000a). Using academics' perceptions of university environment to distinguish between Australian universities. Educational Studies, 26, 205-212. Dorman, J. P. (2000b). Validation and use of an instrument to assess university-level psychological environment in Australian universities. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 21, 25-38. Fagen, A. P., & Mazur, E. (2003). Assessing and enhancing the introductory science courses in physics and biology: Peer Instruction, classroom demonstration, and genetic vocabulary. Ph.D thesis, Harvard University. Franklin, S.V., Sayre, E. C. & Clark, J.W. (2014). Traditional taught students learn; actively engaged students number. American Journal of Physics. 82(8),798-801. Fraser, B. J. (1994). Classroom and school climate. In D. Gable (Ed.), Handbook of research on science teaching and learning. National Science Teachers Associations, Australia: Macmillan. Hatim, A. H. (2001). Toward more objective teaching. Iraqi Journal of Medical Science. 9(2), 99-101. Miles, R. (2015). Tutorial instruction in science education. Cypriot Journal of Educational Science, 10(2), 168179. 74 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey McKee, E., Williamson, V. M., & Ruebush, L. E. (2007). Effects of a demonstration laboratory on student learning. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 16, 395–400. Nguyen, N, Williams, J & Nguyen, T. (2012). The use of ICT in teaching tertiary physics: Technology and pedagogy. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 13 (2), 1-19. Tobin K.G., (1990), Research on science laboratory activities; in pursuit of better questions and answers to improve learning, School Science and Mathematics, 90, 403-418. Walberg, H.J. (2001). A psychological theory of educational productivity. In F. Farley & N. Gordon (Eds.). Psychology and education. Berkely, CA: McCutchan Walberg, H.J. (2004). Improving the productivity of America's schools. Educational Leadership, 41(8), 19-27. Walberg, H.J., Fraser, B.J., & Welch, W.W. (2006). A test of a model of educational productivity among senior high school students. Journal of Educational Research, 79, 133-139. Author Information Shahida Sajjad Dadabhoy Institute of Higher Education, Karachi, Pakistan SNPA-17/B, KCHS Union Limited, Off. Shaheed-e-Millat Road, Block-3, PECHS, Karachi / Pakistan. Contact E-mail: shahida_sajjad75270@yahoo.com 75 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 70-78 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Improving Higher Education Quality in Jordan using Mobile Technologies Dia ABUALNADI The University of Jordan Ahmed AL-SALAYMEH The University of Jordan Feda’ YOUSEF The University of Jordan Ghazi AL SUKKAR The University of Jordan Mohammed HAWA The University of Jordan Abstract: In This Paper, We Introduce The Outcomes Of A Project, Which Aims At Developing An Adaptive Curriculum In Engineering Education That Is Based On Digital Learning Resources For Mobile Devices. This Project Comes As A Response To The Requirements For Modernization And Accessibility Of The Jordanian Higher Education System To Improve The Integration Of Disadvantaged Learners In The Educational System. Disadvantaged Learners Include Those With Special Needs Or A Socioeconomic Status That Significantly Restrict Their Ability For Adequate Education. Those Include High School Students And Undergraduate/Graduate Students At Universities. The Study Investigated Methods For Effective And Sustainable Integration Of Mobile Technologies Into The Educational Process. Additionally, An Assessment Of The Most Suitable Digital Content And Devices To Be Used Was Conducted In Order To Develop Plans, Strategies And Programs That Combine The Appropriate Methods And Techniques Of Training, Particularly For People With Special Needs. The Study Of The Educational Needs To Implement The Newest Mobile Technologies Was Carried Out By Means Of Questionnaires And Interviews. Keywords: E-learning, Quality of education, Mobile technology, Disadvantaged learners Introduction The goals of this study can be divided into specific goals and wider goals. The specific goals are:  Analysis of student needs in different contexts and existing curriculum at several universities in Jordan. Given the objectives of the project, this study is oriented toward assessing the extent of use of mobile technologies by the specified groups of learners and opening opportunities for their inclusion in the learning process (Bekteshi, 2015).  Design of a Mobile Digital Resources (MDR) model to support the didactic features of mobile technologies in order to adapt them to the training conditions of disadvantaged groups of people.  Design of educational scenarios, which includes (i) Use of mobile technologies to expand training opportunities for students with special needs; and (ii) Use of mobile devices for distant training of socioeconomic disabled people (Sung et al., 2016). The general objective of the scenarios is improvement of the - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey   conditions for equal access to education and training by enhancing the motivation to participate in the educational process, by facilitating access and by additional activities with the students. Development and adaptation of mobile applications and digital educational resources (Hayhoe, 2015). This objective addresses the need for implementation of e-learning tools generalized across a range of disciplines in the field of engineering education and across several institutions, to meet the needs of disadvantaged group's education and training (Vate-U-Lan, 2008) (Hakkani-Tur et al., 2011). Strengthening the institutional capacities of the Jordanian universities through short term intensive training of academics and staff members (Lopez et al., 2015). The study also had wider goals, which include:  Increasing the quality of the Jordanian higher education system by promoting the adoption of the MDR model as a model for a wider reform of education in the domain of engineering education for people with special needs (Mwandosya & Montero, 2017) (Koole, 2006).  Implementation and promotion of inclusive education practices for students with special educational needs in Jordanian universities that will lead to delivering a more equal education opportunity for all students. National E-learning Strategy for Higher Education in Jordan Many universities and institutions of higher education have recognized the value of the Internet in changing the way people learn. Traditional classroom courses can be augmented with interactive material on the Web, and old-fashioned distance learning courses can be transformed from correspondence courses or television lectures into e-learning environments. However, few institutions have been able to embrace e-learning in a way that enables widespread innovative uses of learning technology throughout the institution. Instead, many rely on individual faculty or departments to make their own decisions about how to implement an e-learning environment that best suits their needs. The result is a hybrid of incompatible solutions that makes it difficult for faculty to share their work. The lack of a centralized technical support organization can also limit the use of e-learning tools to departments that have technical expertise. E-learning can be defined as the use of information and communication technology to acquire knowledge and improve skills at times and on terms defined by each learner in an interactive and engaging environment. It can cover a spectrum of activities from supported learning, to blended learning (the combination of traditional and e-learning practices), to learning that is entirely online. Higher education has been traditionally recognized as the base for learning, technological innovation, and knowledge creation. Empowering this base with widened and lifelong learning capabilities better promotes innovation, intellectual capital investment, social and economic development, and education empowerment. Recent advances in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have spurred an increasing interest in e-learning pedagogy to widen access to learning and cultivate lifelong learning among citizens through the use of ICT (National e-learning strategy for higher education, 2009). Strengths and Weaknesses for Using Information and Communication Technologies in Jordan Despite the fact that universities in Jordan are distinguished in the quality of teaching and research, their utilization of e-learning is still in the early stages and they may face many challenges in this regard. Jordanian universities have excelled in some areas related to information technology and have many challenges to face as well. In what follows, we will identify the strengths and weaknesses in e-learning as well as the many opportunities that will be available. The objective of our work is to utilize the universities’ strengths and build on them, mitigate weaknesses, avoid threats and exploit opportunities (National e-learning strategy for higher education, 2009). Strengths 71 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey  The vision of HM King Abdullah II that “Jordan will become an IT hub for the region” has been a rallying call to all Jordanians to pull together to realize His Majesty’s vision for the future benefit of all citizens.  In 2003, the Ministry of Education led Jordan to become the first country in the Arab world to take clear steps into applying true e-learning to all its students by deploying EduWave at the Kingdom’s main Data Center and to serve over 1.2 million students in Jordan.  Connecting Jordanians Initiative: A National Broadband Learning and Educational Network (NBN) has been launched in 2003, which resulted in approximately 5,000 km of optical fiber and several thousand ITnetwork devices to be installed as one of the most advanced educational networks in the world. This network linked Jordan’s 3200 public schools, 10 public universities, 23 community colleges, and 75 Knowledge Stations to support the transformation of Jordan’s formal and informal education system.  The Jordan Universities Network, which connects the 10 public universities and the Schools Broadband Learning Network has been launched. It provides a 155 Mbps (STM-1) Internet link to Jordanian universities.  Jordan is already well endowed with telecommunications infrastructure. Fixed and mobile telephone services are available almost universally in inhabited areas of the country, and penetration has reached more than 93% of households overall. In addition, the quality and reliability of the telecommunications infrastructure is above global standards.  Mobile penetration is growing rapidly and reached 64%, mainly due to significant drops in mobile charges.  Jordanian universities have robust, standards-based information technology network infrastructure, including hardware, software, and applications for intra-university connectivity; and global connectivity through the Internet.  Jordanian universities are connected to a centralized integrated e-library system.  Some Jordanian universities have invested in e-learning tools (VLE and Content Development tools).  Technology incubators have been established to encourage innovative solution development in partnership with the private sector (such as Yarmouk University, I-park incubators, Jordan Innovation Center, Philadelphia University, JIC – University of Jordan, AlHasan Industrial zone). Weaknesses  E-learning experience is immature in all Jordanian universities and it is scattered among some departments/faculties without consistency.  There is no broad awareness of e-learning beyond academic and some government circles.  There is no common definition of e-learning as they range from using computers for learning to purely distance learning.  There is no common understanding of the benefits of e-learning. Some see it as a lesser form of education (when compared with traditional classroom-based, teacher or professor-led instruction). Very few people see the potential it can bring to improving the quality of education, and increasing the reach and breadth of educational opportunities.  There is no shared vision of e-learning for Jordan; some decision makers see e-learning as a luxury form of education, a replacement of faculty, a way to reduce budget deficit, etc.  There is no holistic or coordinated/collaborative approach to e-learning that considers the cost of PCs and Internet access.  There is no broad adoption of international web-based training development standards. 72 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey  There is a lack of skills for self-paced learning which has been addressed by the Jordan Education Initiative.  Most of the content being developed does not leverage e-learning instructional design.  The current e-learning efforts are largely run individually by faculty or for piloting purposes. Analysis The study of the educational needs in the process of implementing the newest mobile technologies was carried out by means of questionnaires and interviews. Information was gathered by means of asking respondents about the preconceptions and attitudes of both educators and learners to the used technologies and their application in the processes of teaching and learning (Riek, 2013) (Frank & Kaplia, 2014). Two questionnaires (for educators and students) and a card with questions for the interview were developed for the study. This study aims to examine the readiness and use of mobile technologies in the higher educational institutions in Jordan. The study also seeks to assist in developing plans, strategies and programs that support education reform for people with special needs. This study will attempt to answer the following questions: (i) What is the level of social adaptation of the students? (ii) What is the state of the learning environment; is individual approach applied for students with special needs? (iii) What type of digital content is most frequently used (types of digital resources – audio, video, images, or text)? (iv) What type of mobile devices do they (the target groups) use? (v) When do they most often use their mobile devices? and (vi) Where do they most often use their mobile devices? Based on information collected from the questionnaires and interviews, the consequent analysis will define summarized profiles of the target groups. The basic characteristics of the target groups are studied and a pedagogical-psychological profile was prepared. This helps in building a conceptual model, corresponding to the age, abilities and specific needs of the group, for which the digital resources for learning by means of mobile devices will be developed. We would like to define the mechanisms by which the proposed model could improve the way in which the students acquire knowledge and gain skills. For successful application of these mechanisms we have to: (i) Build a didactic model; (ii) Define the technical means to be used (smartphones, tablets, laptops) for e-learning; (iii) Create a description for the selection of multimedia resources appropriate for the target groups; and (iv) Construct an educational technology to combine the appropriate methods and techniques of training. The target groups of this study are shown in Tables 1 and 2 below, as well as the responsible university that had conducted the interviews and collected the surveys. A sample of 239 participants, including instructors, teachers and students, were contacted and interviewed. Fifty of them were selected for one-on-one interviews. The study population consisted of samples from three public universities, General Secondary Schools for Children with Special Needs, Gazza refugee's camp and Nazik Al Hariri welfare center for special education in Jordan. The qualitative study sample consisted of 114 teachers and 125 students with special needs. Table 1. Jordanian universities responsible for the study target groups Target group Responsible university General Secondary Schools for The University of Jordan (UJ) Children with Special Needs Higher Council for Affairs of persons The University of Jordan (UJ) with Disabilities Gazza refugees camp Jordan University of Science and Technology (JUST) Nazik Al Hariri welfare center for Princess Sumaya University for special education Technology (PSUT) Deanship of Students Affairs at each UJ, PSUT, and JUST Jordanian University 73 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 2. Number of collected samples by each university University Instructor’s Student’s questionnaire questionnaire UJ 35 57 JUST 29 53 PSUT 50 15 Total 114 125 This study used the following research methods, which are illustrated in Figure 1: 1. The analytical descriptive quantitative method was used in order to describe the extent of using mobile technologies in Jordanian public and private universities, and to identify the possible obstacles to this usage and the reasons behind these obstacles by conducting a comprehensive survey and well-designed questionnaire. 2. The qualitative method was used in order to investigate the views of instructors and students about the extent of using mobile technologies in higher education in Jordan, and to identify the obstacles that might face this usage. This was implemented by conducting one-on-one interviews with students and teachers. To achieve the objectives of this study, two questionnaires were developed, one for instructors and the other one for students. Each contains three major sections: background information, general questions and specific questions. An online questionnaire was created and circulated using Google forms. Moreover, the questionnaires were translated into Arabic language by UJ team to facilitate the process of data collection and to get more accurate results. Data collection methodology Quantitative (Questionnaire) Electronic questionnaire Qualitative (Focus groups) Paper-based questionnaire Discussion sessions Figure 1. Data collection methodology Results Results of the instructors’ questionnaire The survey was done with about 80% male and 20% female. All of the instructors have a mobile device (cell phone, laptop, or tablet). Most of the instructors use mobile phones daily while a smaller percentage uses laptops and even fewer percentage uses tablets. This is shown in Figure 2. The study shows that the majority of instructors use their mobile phones to conduct calls while they prefer to use laptops for preparing course materials or for research. 74 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Figure 2. Usage of mobile devices The study found that more than 96% of the instructors have Internet access at school and nearly all of them use e-mail and social networks for communication. But around two-thirds of the instructors in the sample study have no experience in teaching using mobile technologies. This is demonstrated in Figure 3. On the other hand, around 78% of them agreed that mobile learning will bring new opportunities for the learning process as demonstrated in Figure 4. Figure 3. Instructors with experience teaching using mobile technologies Figure 4. Instructors agreeing mobile learning brings new opportunities It was found that two-thirds of the sample studied agreed that mobile learning will be a more flexible method of learning as it can be done anytime, anywhere. Also mobile learning will improve communication between the student and the teacher and mobile learning is a quicker method of getting feedback in learning. On the other hand, instructors found that it is difficult to control the use of mobile devices in class. This is demonstrated in Figure 5. 75 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Figure 5. Difficulty to control usage of mobile devices in class Results of the Students’ Questionnaire Percentage distribution of respondents by gender were as follows: 57.9% female and 42.1% male, while the distribution of respondent’s age is shown in Figure 6. Figure 6. Age distribution of student respondents It is found that above 90% of the respondents own at least one mobile device, while the other 10% does not have any mobile device. The majority of the respondents use mobile phones to conduct calls and communicate with each other, while they prefer to use laptops and tablets for studying and research purposes. More than two-thirds of the sample has Internet access at school and more than 90% of them use the Internet to retrieve data. The percentage of students using mobile devices in their education is shown in Figure 7. Figure 7. Percentage of students using mobile devices in education Around two-thirds of the group mentioned that learning by using mobile devices would be easier because it allows them to study anytime, and any place (see Figure 8). Most students would like to be able to interact with teachers and classmates both inside and outside class via mobile devices. They would also like to have some lessons in which they can watch video films (Haiyan & Dongming, 2012). 76 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Figure 8. Easiness of learning using mobile devises Recommendations and Conclusions Based on our study we can deduce the following conclusions regarding the implementation of mobile devices in the learning process in Jordan, especially for disadvantaged students both in high school and at universities:  There is a need for effective and continuous integration of mobile technologies in the educational process.  The most suitable devices to be used are tablets or laptops while using mobile device inside classrooms might be difficult.  Tablets or laptops should be distributed in a way that is compatible with the students’ numbers and educational needs.  Activating and promoting mobile devices in the educational process should be sustainably serviced to avoid technical problems that students might face. Furthermore, the lectures’ content must be updated to meet the students’ needs.  The study recommended activating e-mail accounts and special mobile apps (e.g. WhatsApp) as a means of communication among students.  Finding radical solutions for slow Internet connections and other disconnection inconveniences before applying the program.  Attracting and involving all faculties in the development of the educational process.  Changing the type of lecture’s content most frequently used from hard copies (text) to digital resources: audio, video, and images.  Most teachers (about 80%) agree that mobile learning will bring new opportunities of learning.  Around 78% of the students used their mobiles in education. Students with special needs (deaf students) are the most. Acknowledgements This work was funded by the Erasmus+ program of the European Union under the project: Improving Higher Education Quality in Jordan using Mobile Technologies for Better Integration of Disadvantaged Groups to Socio-economic Diversity/mEQUITY, project number: 561527-EPP-1-2015-1-BG-EPPKA2-CBHE-JP. 77 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey References Bekteshi, L. (2015). Information and communication technology and students with disabilities. European Scientific Journal, 11(22), 337-347. Frank, J. A., & Kaplia, V. (2014). Development of mobile interfaces to interact with automatic control experiments. IEEE Control System Magazine, 34(5), 78-98. Haiyan, W., & Dongming, H. (2012). Mobile education design and implementation of video teaching material. Proceedings: International Conference on Industrial Control and Electronics Engineering. Xian, China: IEEE. Hakkani-Tur, D., Tur, G., & Heck, L. (2011). Research challenges and opportunities in mobile applications. IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 28(4), 108-110. Hayhoe, S. (2015). Utilising mobile technologies for students with disabilities. In Jones-Parry, R., (Ed.) Commonwealth education partnerships 2015/16. Commonwealth education partnerships, Nexus Strategic Partnerships, Cambridge, UK. Koole, M. L. (2006). Practical issues in mobile education. Proceedings from WMTE’06: International Workshop on Wireless, Mobile and Ubiquitous Technology in Education. Athens, Greece: IEEE. Lopez, J. P., Cerezo, A., Menedez, J. M., & Ballesteros, J. P. (2015). Usage of mobile devices as collaborative tools for education and preparation of official exams. Proceedings from ISCE: International Symposium on Consumer Electronics. Madrid, Spain: IEEE. Mwandosya, G. I., & Montero, C. S. (2017). Towards a mobile education tool for higher education teachers: a user requirements definition. Proceedings: IEEE AFRICON. Cape Town, South Africa: IEEE. National e-learning strategy for higher education 2007-2010. (2009). In Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Jordan. Retrieved from https://www.uop.edu.jo/download/research/members/Gissa-elearn-jordan.pdf Riek, L. D. (2013). Embodied computation: an active-learning approach to mobile robotics education. IEEE Transactions on Education, 56(1), 67-72. Sung, Y.-T., Chang, K.-E., & Liu, T.-C. (2016). The effects of integrating mobile devices with teaching and learning on students' learning performance: a meta-analysis and research synthesis. Computers & Education, 94, 252-275. Vate-U-Lan, P. (2008). Mobile learning: major challenges for engineering education. Proceedings: The 38th Annual Frontiers in Education Conference. Saratoga Springs, NY, USA: IEEE. Author Information Dia Abualnadi Ahmed Al-Salaymeh The University of Jordan Amman, 11942, Jordan The University of Jordan Amman, 11942, Jordan Feda’ Yousef Ghazi Al Sukkar The University of Jordan Amman, 11942, Jordan The University of Jordan Amman, 11942, Jordan Mohammed Hawa The University of Jordan Amman, 11942, Jordan Contact e-mail: hawa@ju.edu.jo 78 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 79-86 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Bullying Against Children with Special Needs in Greek Schools.What Action Do Teachers Take? Tryfon MAVROPALIAS University of Western Macedonia Abstract: The aim of this research is to evaluate the actions of education when dealing with the phenomenon of aggressiveness and bullying towards disabled students in primary schools of North Greece. In the quantitative research conducted by means of a questionnaire, 126 primary school educators took part . The results of the research have shown that incidents of aggression and bullying with children with special needs as victims appear since pre-school and their frequency is highest near the end of primary school age. From the foundlings resulting that the children with SN victimized in moderate degree in the general school. Also the prominent reason that causes the expression of bullying is the type of disability. School bullying is most often expressed at the school yard. Educators take certain measures to reduce bullying incidents and they state that they are moderately ready to handle them. Keywords: Children with disabilities, General school, Classmates, Teachers Introduction Disability is a multidimensional phenomenon, which is directly related to the size of the gap between the individual's skills and the demands of society, with emphasis on functional abilities,which are vital with regards to the autonomy and participation in social life. The barriers faced by people with disabilities in their daily lives are due to the existence of this gap between the needs of their own disability and the structure of the society they live in, which has not taken into account the characteristics of this population group. Child aggression is one of the issues that has been extensively studied in social sciences. The search for effective, timely interventions in aggressive children is based on the close relationship between early aggression, and subsequent psychopathology, including school failure, delinquency and crime. Olweus (1997) provides a general and comprehensible definition of bullying by identifying it as the state in which the student is exposed repeatedly and for some time to negative actions by another or other students. Negative act or aggressive behavior is considered to be one of the following: when a person collides or attempts to hit or injure or hurts someone, verbal aggression (threats, teasing), strokes, strokes, kicks, physical contact , offensive gestures, a person's forbearance from the group, or the obstruction of another's wishes . The four characteristics of intimidation is: (a) power imbalance between individuals, (b) the intention of the attacker, (C) Failure, e.g. sole and / or distress the victim, (d) Frequency and extent of the repeatability. In the victim-victimizer relationships there is an imbalance of physical and psychological power among individuals and aggressive acts are recurring within a relatively long time (Atlas & Percler, 1998). Children with special educational needs are a high-engagement risk group in regards to bullying and victimization in relation to the standard development students ( Kourdounouli, 2017, Andreou, Didaskaloy & Vlachou, 2013). In the case of these children the risk of exposure to victimization situations is increased up to 3 times ( Blake, Lund., Zhou, Kwok, & Benz, 2012). 67% of students with disabilities have been intimidated compared to 25% of the general student population (Beatly & Alexeyev, 2008). Diversity itself is expected to sharply increase the chances of intimidation (Knox & Conti-Ramsden, 2003). In addition, Rose, Espelage, Aragonal & Elliott, (2011) report that the more serious the disability is, the higher the chances of intimidation. - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Disabled children are a high-risk group involved in the phenomenon, as they have certain peculiarities that target them among peers, and it has been noticed that some children with behavioral problems, emotional difficulties or developmental disorders often adopt more aggressive ways of conciliation with others, in this way the perpetrators ( provocative victims ). In particular, students with developmental disabilities encounter greater difficulties in shaping and concluding social and interpersonal relationships, which may be due to the inability to properly decode social stimuli and non-verbal use of language ( Rose 2011, in Cordunuli, 2017). Kourkoutas et . al, (2013) report that children with special educational needs often lack the necessary psychosocial powers to express their problem or to defend themselves and properly process the emotional effects of victimization . Research data suggest that the people involved have difficulties in the field of mental health, social adaptation and schooling ( Andreou et. al., 2003). Supporting victim-pupils and fostering them through psychosocial skills and counseling programs to strengthen their mental resilience, which will reduce both anxiety and emotional difficulties, appears to be an important parameter of new intervention programs. Thus, for pupils with special educational needs at risk of victimization, individualized behavioral programs, such as social skills training and mental health counseling, should be provided to enable them to integrate into the standard classroom ( Cordunuli, 2017) . Regarding the context of the class , interventions include usually the use of organized and structured psychopedagogical techniques that contribute to the creation of a receptive and supportive climate within the classroom that focus on the development of psychosocial skills and promote communication and collaboration among students ( Giovazolias, Kourkoutas,, Mitsopoulou, & Georgiadi, 2010). The class is an important supportive system for vulnerable, very stressed and mentally handicapped children. Teachers should be aware of the social interactions between pupils with and without special educational needs and create a positive environment that supports the individual differences of students ( Meadan & Monda - Amaya, 2008). Method The aim of this research is to evaluate the actions of education when dealing with the phenomenon of aggressiveness and bullying towards disabled students in primary schools of North Greece. For this reason, focused on the teachers who are considered to have key roles in management of incidents bullying. The research questions of this study are as follows: A. To what extent victimized children with SN in the general school? B. To what extent the type of disability is related to the role that pupils have with SN in bullying incidents? C. What are the actions of the teachers to deal with bullying incidents involving students with SN? The quantitative survey involved 126 teachers. Οne hundred and ten (110-87,3%) participants were elementary school teachers and sixteen (16-12,7%) participants were kindergarten teachers. In additional, the 99 (78,6%) were women and 27 (21,4%) were men. Average age of participants: 43,1 years. Average service in schools participants: 17,3 years. Data Collection Instrument : Questionnaire with 17 questions, 15 closed type and 2 open type was used. The invited and sample were 167 teachers and the participants 126 (75.4%). The survey was conducted from February to June 2017 in Northern Greece . For on analysis was used the software SPSS v . 2 3 . Results The main findings of the study are reported below. Out of the 126 teachers, 106 (84.1%) had Bachelor 's degree and 20 (15,9%) Master 's degree . Seventy-seven (77-61.1%) teachers were educated on school bullying, of which only 5 (6.5%) teachers had been trained on bullying issues where children attend Special Needs ( SN ). The 49 (38.9%) teachers were not trained for bullying at all . All teachers reported they did not use physical or verbal violence against children-victims with SN. They also believe that intervention is the responsibility not only of the SN but also the other teachers. Most sample teachers (81, 9%) stated that there is an official "policy-regulation" of the school on issues of coping with bullying. However a percentage of 63% of teachers said that the regulation was applied to a small & moderate degree. Also most educators based on their answers are of the opinion that this Regulation parents do not know. 80 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey The analysis showed that teachers with a master’s in special education, perceive to a greater extent bullying incidents involved children with SN, in relation to general education teachers (Χ2=19,372 p=0,03<0,05). Most teachers (54 ,0%) said they were prepared "moderately" and "A little" to deal with general bullying incidents (fig. 1). Fig.1 Readiness of teachers Also, 65% of teachers said " Very Little " and " Little " for their readiness to face school bullying incidents involving children with SN ( Fig. 2) . Fig2. Teacher training for bullying with students with SN The analysis showed that there was no difference in the incidence of bullying incidents with pupils with SN , in relation to the size of the school (Small schools <120 students ) (χ2=19,372 p=0,02<0,05). Additionally, the analysis revealed that teachers with postgraduate education in special education are more aware of the incidents of bullying in relation to general education teachers (Χ2=17,693 p=0,02< 0,05).As for the degree of victimization of students with SN in heterogeneous groups of pupils in the general school it was found that the largest percentage of the survey sample stated " moderately " & " little " ( fig. 3). 81 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Fig 3. Victimization of pupils in heterogeneous groups of pupils Table 1 shows the role of pupils with SN (Victimizer or victims) in bullying incidents , based on their diagnosis. The sample responded that all children with ADHD (100%) had the role of a victimizer, while all children with Down (100%) were victims. DIAGNOSIS LEARNING DISABILITIES ADHD INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY AUTISM PHYSICAL DISABILITIES. .DOWN TOTAL Table 1. Roles students with SN in bullying by diagnosis Victimizer Victim “I am not sure" Ν-% Ν-% Ν-% 14-30.4% 25-54.3% 7-15.2% Σύνολο Ν-% 46-100% 16-100% 4-36.3% 0-0.0% 5-45.4% 0-0.0% 2-18.2% 17-100% 11-100% 5-33.5% 4-36.3% 8-61.5% 4-36.3% 0-0% 3-27.3% 13-100% 11-100% 0-0% 43-42.1% 4-100% 46-45.1% 0-100% 13-12.8% 4-100% 102-100% The analysis showed that boys with SN have a greater role as a victimizer than girls with SN . While girls with SN victimized to a greater extent than boys with SN (Table. 2). Table 2. Gender correlation of SN pupils or victims Very Little A little Moderately Quite a bit Very Much 1 2 3 4 5 VICTIMIZERS χ2-test statistics BOYS GIRLS (Ν=92) 7 (7.6%) 16 (17.4%) 16 (17.4%) 32 (34.7%) 47 (51.1%) 30 (32.6%) 4 (4.3%) 5 (5.4%) χ2 = 21.720, df = 3, p< 0.001 BOYS GIRLS (Ν=92) 12 (13.1%) 9 (9.7%) 16 (17.4%) 20 (21.7%) VICTIMS 46(50.0%) 10(10.9%) 25 (27.2%) 26 (28.2%) 8 (8.7%) 12 (13.1%) χ2 = 34.865, df = 3, p< 0.001 SEX 18 (19.6%) 9 (9.7%) Table 3 shows the perceptions of teachers regarding with the space of school where appear incidents bullying . As the frequencies in the first column are low, the x 2 test statistic and statistical significance show values after the collapse and recode of the first response anchor. The place where incidents of school bullying appear more frequently is the courtyard of the school, following the corridors, toilets and the classroom. 82 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey School area Very Little 1 Courtyard (N=102) 2 (1.9%) Corridors (Ν=98) 5 (5.1%) Bathrooms (Ν=105) 6(5.7%) Class (N=105) 24(22.9%) Table 3. School areas Moderately Quite a bit 3 4 . 5 (4.9%) 7 (6.9%) 57(55.8%) A little 2 11 11.2%) 18 (18.4%) 43(43.8%) Very Much 5 χ2-test statistics 31 (30.4%) χ2 = 20.310, df = 3, p< 0.001 21 (21.4%) χ2 = 31.422, df = 3, p< 0.001 5 (4.8%) 37(35.2%) 39(37.1%) 18 (16.6%) χ2 = 34.897, df = 3, p< 0.001 28 (26.6%) 36(34.2%) 6(5.7%) 11 (10.5%) χ2 =175.623 df = 3, p< 0.001 Teachers said that in 68 episodes of bullying , kind of bullying who received a higher percentage of children with SN was isolation (> 50%) followed by gestures and insults ( Fig. 4). Fig. 4. Type of victimization In bullying incidents where students with SN were victimizers, the first action of most teachers (44, 34.9%) was to inform the class teacher who attends the child (Fig.5) 83 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Fig . 5. H first action of teachers when children with SN are the perpetrators In bullying incidents where students with SN were the victims, the first action of most teachers (51, 40.4%) was to inform the special education teacher (Fig. 6) Fig . 6 . Τhe first action of teachers when children with SN are the victims Discussion Τhe aim of our study was to investigate circumstantial bullying, where they participate as victims or victimisers and pupils with special educational needs. An effort was made to record the relevant actions of primary school teachers. Teachers said they were generally aware of bullying , but were briefed on bullying issues involving pupils with SN is very limited. Similar findings have also emerged from related surveys ( Forber-Pratt, Espelage& Aragon, 2013). An inadequate factor in effective management of the phenomenon is the inadequate training of teachers on issues related to coping with bullying and victimization at school. As a result teachers feel insecure in front of such behaviour and do not know how to intervene effectively ( Kokkiadi & kourkoutas, 2016). Children with disabilities are somewhat involved in aggressive behaviour. Our finding is related to the results of similar research ( Rigby, 2008 ; Swearer et.al., 2010). Also, the results showed that students with mental and emotional disabilities, as well as girls, are more likely to play the role of victims of school bullying, while for children with physical disabilities the role between the victim and the victimizer is shared. This finding can be explained by the fact that children who are in the autism spectrum but also with a mental 84 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey disability have difficulty in shaping and concluding social and interpersonal relationships due to the inability to correctly decode social stimuli. Episodes of aggressive behaviour appear in less well-supervised places, with a first occurrence in the school yard. In these spaces there are loose rules compared to the classroom, which exploits child offenders to impose on the most vulnerable students. This is also confirmed by the Rigby survey (200 8 ) , according to which the highest level of intimidation occurs during breaks, as there is less surveillance. The same conclusion was reached in the investigation of Didaskalou, Andreou & Vlachou, (2009) who talked about the difficulty faced by teachers ineffectively managing these problems in the " open " spaces of the school . Based on the statements of educators, the most common form of bullying that pupils receive with SN , is the isolation, followed by aggressive gestures and insults. This finding may be due to children with SN have not been accepted by their classmates. For example, do not play together during breaks, and not invite them to social events outside school hours (birthdays, holidays, etc. ). It is noted that in arelated study by Koster, Pijl, Nakken & Van Houten, 2010) states that placing a disability learner in general education does not automatically ensure his social participation in the environment. The child may have difficulty with limited friendships and lack of acceptance by his classmates. Findings from international surveys show that pupils and their parents have a neutral to negative attitude towards the education of children with disabilities in general education (De Boer, Pijl &. Minnaert, 2010 Nowicki & Sandieson, 2002 ). However, they differ from the type and severity of special needs. Thus, they have a more positive attitude in creating relationships-friendships with a mentally handicapped child as well as with moderate / severe behavioural problems (Alghazo, & Naggar Gaad, 2004). Also most teachers said that when they notice a bullying incident where students with SN are involved , their first action is to inform the Special Education Teacher ( SET ) . It seems that teachers trust SET 's knowledge and experience and that it can help to properly manage the bullying incident . On the other hand, few teachers refer first to the pupil-pupil with SN to the school principal. Although due to his position the role of the school principal is crucial in solving the phenomenon, it is observed that as a practice is not very often chosen by the teachers. This may be due to the fact that teachers perceive that the role of the school principal is more authoritative. Conclusion Taking into account the results of the survey and the needs of teachers, a series of suggestions are considered to be important. As far as the phenomenon of school bullying is concerned, it is noted that the information of the teachers is limited. For this reason it is necessary for the teachers to be trained with seminars and workshops that have an experiential character on the issues of prevention and counteraction of school bullying, conflict and crisis management. Thus, it is considered necessary to establish social services in the school area, where specialized personnel, such as consultants, psychologists and social workers, will cooperate at regular intervals with the teachers and more generally with the staff of the school in order to inform them any case to intervene to solve problems. Except, of course, teachers will also need to work with parents, who are an integral part of the school environment, in order to jointly design intervention plans to address the phenomenon. It is well known that intimidation affects the psychosocial development of the people involved within and outside the school community. Finally, school bullying is not only about the class teacher or the educational special education, but about the entire school community. The school should take all necessary measures to ensure the physical and mental health of children with or without special needs. References Alghazo, E. M., & Naggar Gaad. E. E. (2004). General education teachers in the United Arab Emirates and their acceptance of the inclusion of students with disabilities. British Journal of Special Education, 31(2), 94–99. Andreou, E., Didaskalou, E., & Vlachou, A. (2013). Bully/victim problems among Greek pupils with special educational needs: associations with loneliness and self-efficacy for peer interactions. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs,15(4), 1-12. Andreou, E., Vlachou, A., & Didaskalou, E. (2005). The roles of self-efficacy, peer- interactions and attitudes in bully/victim incidents: implications for intervention policy-practices. School Psychology International, 26 (5), 545-562. Beaty, L. A., & Alexeyev, E. B. (2008). The problem of school bullies: What the research tells us. Journal of Adolescence, 43(169), 1-11. Blake, J. J., Lund, E. M., Zhou, Q., Kwok, O., & Benz, M. R. (2012). National prevalence rates of bully victimization among students with disabilities in the United States. School Psychology Quarterly, 27(4), 210-222. 85 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey De Boer, A. A., Pijl, S. J., &. Minnaert. A. (2010). Attitudes of parents towards inclusive education: A review of the literature. European Journal of Special Needs Education 25, 2, 165–81. Didaskalou, E., Andreou, E., & Vlachou, A. (2009). Bullying and Victimization in Children with Special Educational Needs: Implications for Inclusive Practices. Interacções, 5(13), 249-274. Forber-Pratt, A. J., Espelage, D. L., & Aragon, S. R. (2013). The Influence of Psychosocial Factors on Bullying Involvement of Students With Disabilities. Educational Psychology, 52, 272-279. Giovazolias, T., Kourkoutas, E., Mitsopoulou, E., & Georgiadi, M. (2010). The relationship between perceived school climate and the prevalence of bullying behavior in Greek schools: Implications for preventive inclusive strategies. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5, 2208-2215. Knox, E., & Conti-Ramsden, G. (2003). Bullying risks of 11-year-old children with specific language impairment (S.L.I.): Does school placement matter? International Journal οf Language & Communication Disorders, 38, 1-12. Kokkiadi, M., & kourkoutas, H. Ε. (2016). Viculation, Self-esteem and Emotional Difficulties in Children with and without Special Educational Needs. Scientific Yearbook of the Pedagogical Department of the Kindergarten of the University of Ioannina,9, 90-128. [In Greek] Koster, M., Pijl, S. J., Nakken, H., & Van Houten, E. J. (2010). Social participation of students with special needs in regular primary education in the Netherlands. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 57(1), 59–75. kourdounouli, Α. (2017). School bullying incidents strategies involving pupils with special educational needs in primary education: Teacher's perspective, Postgraduate Dissertation, European Univercity of Cyprus, Nicosia. [In Greek] Kourkouta, EE, Giovanazolias, Th., Plexousakis, S., & Stavrou, P.D. (2013). Counseling support for pupils with or without special educational needs who have been bullied in school: Indicative evidence, comments and suggestions. In ECE Kurkoutas & Th. Thanos (Ed.), School Violence and Deviance: Psychological, Sociological Pedagogical Dimensions. Accession interventions (pp. 337-368). Athens: Topos. [In Greek] Lifshitz, H., Glaubman, R., & Issawi, R. (2004). Attitudes towards inclusion: The case of Israeli and Palestinian regular and special education teachers. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 19(2), 171–190. Nowicki, E. A., & Sandieson. R. (2002). A meta-analysis of school-age children’s attitudes towards persons with physical or intellectual disabilities. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 49(3), 243–265. Olweus, D. (1997). Bully/victim problems in schools: facts and intervention. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 12 (4), 495-510. Rigby, K., (2008). Why Do Some Children Bully at School?: The Contributions of Negative Attitudes Towards Victims and the Perceived Expectations of Friends, Parents and Teachers. School Psychology International, 26, 147 – 161. Rose, C. A. (2011). Bullying among students with disabilities. In D. L. Espelage & S. M. Swearer (Eds.), Bullying in North American schools (2nd ed., pp. 34-44). New York, NY: Routledge. Rose, C. A., Espelage, D. L., Aragon, S. R., & Elliott, J. (2011). Bullying and Victimization among Students in Special Education and General Education Curricula. Exceptionality Education International, 21(3), 214. Swearer, S. M., Espelage, D. L., Vaillancourt, T., & Hymel, S. (2010). What can be done about school bullying? Linking research to educational practice. Educational Researcher, 39 (1), 38-47. Author Information Tryfon Mavropalias University of Western Macedonia Address: School of Education, Department of Primary Education , Florina / Greece Contact E-mail: tmavropalias@uowm.gr 86 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 87-99 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Evaluation of the Undergraduate Program in Higher Education: the case of the Science and Mathematics Department at the Faculty of Education, Lebanese University Suzanne EL TAKACH Lebanese University Muhammad RAWAS Lebanese University Mohammad DOKMAK Lebanese University Abstract: The Faculty of Education is currently in the phase of revising its LMD programs. In order to modernize and to keep in track with the latest trends in Education, the Science and Math department made an indepth study that involves 30 teachers and 9 trainers, who presented their ideas for innovation, suggestions for new courses and improvement in the present courses. A large scale survey was done on undergraduate students, in order to collect ideas about the taught courses, students’ skills and courses learning outcomes, as well as needs and suggestions for new courses. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected a) from 1005 studentsfilled questionnaires that assess 33 courses from the Science and Mathematics Department and lasted over 6 semesters, as well as practicum courses at schools and b) a focus group of 34 students, in their last semester, filled a questionnaire detailing the taught courses, new courses and comments about their learning during their 6 semesters at the Faculty. Teachers suggested new courses like STEM and science and industry, proposed new specializations, such as science and math teacher preparation for middle classes, and redistribute some current courses. Students in their last semester, for instance, were satisfied with the taught courses related to their specialization, they complained from the redundancy in some courses like psychology and general education and they emphasize on taking into consideration their opinions and suggestions in the assessment of the LMD program. Keywords: Assessment in higher education, LMD program, Quality of teaching Introduction The term assessment is used in the literature to describe the collection and use of information and data about educational programs to improve student learning. This is usually obtained by using questionnaires (Feistauer & Richter , 2017). Stitt-Bergh (2015a) designed an assessment initiative to assess learning outcomes based on three frameworks: Participatory Evaluation, Evaluation Capacity Building (ECB), and Sociocultural Learning Theory. The participatory evaluation is a type of evaluation that describes a cooperative process in which the faculty and evaluation experts participate in the evaluation process. “ECB is essentially training faculty how to do learning outcomes assessment and how it can be useful. An institution can use a combination of different strategies to build faculty and administrator capacity to do outcomes assessment” (Stitt-Bergh, 2015a, p. 9). An institution can use a combination of different strategies to build faculty and administrator capacity to do outcomes assessment. The third type is the sociocultural learning theory. This theory is not only concerned of the measurement of student learning. “By taking a sociocultural learning theory approach, the assessment - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey specialist’s role as an “assessment teacher” is dynamic instead of a one-way transmission of knowledge.” (StittBergh, 2015a. p. 11). Also, Rickards and Stitt-Bergh (2016) cited three challenges in higher education evaluation: first, the issue of ethical treatment of college students: institutions of higher education should find methods to protect student privacy and students should be informed of how the data and information gathered about their work are used. A second challenge is negative reaction by some faculty. “The negative reaction leads to a lack of engagement and reluctance to use findings, which runs counter to an assessment for improvement model that relies on collaborative participation in evaluative practice.” (p. 17). Third, “the nature of the college context presents challenges to inquiry”. Since the evaluation instruments are prepared by faculty members for specific purposes and the data may be used to answer many questions related to students learning. This practice may complicate the analyses. Stitt-Bergh (2015b) highlighted features of graduate programs at research universities that have an effect on student learning outcomes assessment. She offered strategies for assessment coordinators/leaders who work with graduate programs. Also, she summarized the roles of evaluators in higher education: “In higher education, the evaluators’ roles include documenting and facilitating use of results, leveraging technology and existing data, negotiating what becomes public information and coauthoring with faculty”. Stitt-Bergh et al. (2016, p. 123 ). Rivza et al (2015) evaluated the higher education programs in Latvia and the role of the universities in economic development. The study concluded that study programs correspond to their objectives. Also, students are involved in the decision making process. “At the same time, more critical thinking, as well as foreign language skills, should be integrated into the study process of regional higher education programmes.”(p. 643). Another conclusion of the study is that higher education in Latvia is a sustainable and competitive system of social existence, having the ability to integrate into the higher education and development processes of Europe and the world. Powell (2011) sums up much of the critics’ positions of higher education evaluation: “Outcomes assessment is an odd business. It is not to the credit of higher education that we have tolerated this external assault on our work. Its origins are suspect, its justifications abjure the science we would ordinarily require, it demands enormous efforts for very little payoff, it renounces wisdom, it requires yielding to misunderstandings, and it displaces and distracts us from more urgent tasks, like the teaching and learning it would allegedly help.” (p. 21) Noteworthy to add that the Supreme Commission for the Development of Curricula and Programs at the Lebanese University presented 5 steps in order to implement successfully the LMD program in terms of: legislation, teaching staff, administration, faculties’ libraries, buildings and research centers and evaluation of the new LMD system (from the PowerPoint on the official website of the Lebanese University, n.d, slide 22). At the the Faculty of Education, some courses have been assessed, like Nature and History of Science and Health Education courses (e.g., El Takach, 2018a; El Takach, 2018b). But no study till now has assessed all courses of the Science and Mathematics Department. Because the Faculty is in the midst of revising the LMD curriculum, a curriculum reform committee was formed amongst of head of departments; its task was to submit a detailed report about the obstacles, difficulties and challenges faced by the implementation of the LMD system at the Faculty. The Science and Mathematics Department took part actively in the LMD committee by collecting and communicating teachers’, trainers’ and students’ suggestions and feedback. The authors’ main goal was to assess courses taught by science and Mathematics teachers for all majors. Thus, the study research questions are: 1. What are students’ overall assessment about the LMD courses, in terms of planning, presentation and teaching of the course, teacher-student interaction and assessment? 2. What are teachers’ and students’ feedback and suggestions for improvement? 3. In students’ opinions, what are skills acquired at the end of their teacher preparation? An Overview: the Faculty of Education and the LMD System Lebanon has a high literacy rate: in 2015, according to the World Bank, it was around 99 % for both male and female youth (as cited in Loo and Magaziner, 2017). İn addition, the European Commission (2012) report on higher education in Lebanon, stated that Lebanese higher education is characterized by a historical openness to the outside world. It is hard to find one institution that does not have a convention or an agreement with one or more institutions in the region, in Europe, in Canada or in the United States. Moreover, during 2000-2001, 88 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey more than 60% of of all Lebanese higher education students in Lebanon were enrolled at the Lebanese University (Loo and Magaziner, 2017). Finally, during 2015, more than 14000 Lebanese students were seeking degrees abroad, according to UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS). In 2012, 74000 students were enrolled at the Lebanese University (Official Website of the Lebanese University). And as stated by Ayoub (2018), the total number of students increased and reached 79000 students. Furthermore, the Faculty of Education is the foundation of the Lebanese University or l’Université Libanaise, the only public university of higher education in Lebanon, and it was known as the High Teachers Institution when it was established in 1951, before being renamed the Faculty of Pedagogy in 1967. The Faculty mission is educating elementary and high school teachers, in addition to other pedagogic frameworks (Lebanese University Official Website). The Faculty of Education is divided into 3 buildings, disseminated in Beirut area: Deanery, Branch I and Branch II. During the academic year 2015-2016, the number of students stands at 2137 students (undergraduate and Master students). The total number of students is 898, 807, and 432 in Deanery, Branch I and II respectively. The 1999 Bologna Declaration has been about improving transparency between higher education systems, facilitating recognition of academic qualifications, promoting academic mobility, and increasing exchange between institutions and individuals. Bologna defined six main objectives; two of these objectives are to promote mobility by overcoming legal recognition and administrative obstacles, and to adopt a system of easily readable and comparable degrees. Similar to American and Bologna-reformed European systems of higher education, Lebanese higher education utilizes three progressive cycles: bachelors level (3 years), masters level (2 years), and doctoral level (3 years), or the French model, licence, master, and doctorat (LMD). The Lebanese University began implementing this three cycle structure in their faculties in 2005, though implementation has not been immediate or uniform. But it is not until the academic year 2008-2009, the Faculty of Education shifted to the LMD system. For instance, a three-year bachelor’s degree is generally 180 ECTS (European Credit Transfer System credits). Noting that, the language of instruction in Lebanon can depend on the institution attended, but programs of study are typically offered in Arabic, English, or French, such as the Lebanese University, the French-structured institution. Science and Mathematics Pre-service Teacher Preparation The Faculty of Education is an applied faculty. Besides a Bachelor Degree for Science and Mathematics Teachers for the elementary level, the faculty offers 10 various specializations, such as English Language, Early Childhood, and Physical and Sports Education teachers for the elementary level. Noteworthy to say that, the Faculty prepares pre-service teachers mostly for the public schools for elementary level. Science and Mathematics disciplines are taught in a foreign language (French or English), for both public and private sectors. The Bachelor degree (Licence) duration is 3 years and it spans over 6 semesters. The total number of credits is 180. The semester spanned over 13 weeks. Students can register from 18 until 30 credits per semester. In science and Mathematics, the total number of courses is 52. Each semester, students can attend 8 courses. These courses vary from compulsory, optional and free ones. They ranges from theoretical (for example, Development of Educational Thought), or applied (for example, Classroom Observation), or practical (such as Technology in Teaching). Some courses are compulsory (specialized track) and some are optional. Finally, science and Mathematics students learn the didactics and the specialization courses in a foreign language, French or English, while social and general education in Arabic. Student Assessment Based on the LMD system, students at the Faculty of Education do a partial exam or formative assessment and a final exam or the summative assessment which is a paper and pencil examination, both exams are used in the assessment of the student in a given course. The partial exam comprises class attendance, quizzes, class presentations and projects. It counts 40% of the total score while 60% are left for the final exam. 89 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Method Sample and Participants The present study is a part of a research project on assessing the LMD program for the Science and Mathematics Department at Branch I. The department comprises 57 teachers and 23 trainers and with an approximate number of 200 students enrolled during 2015-2016. It is the biggest Department at the Faculty among the Languages, Humanities, General Education and Psychology Departments. A large scale survey is used in order to collect data about the taught courses, students’ skills and courses learning outcomes, as well as their needs and suggestions for new courses. The questionnaires used to collect students’ attitudes towards the courses and training in this study were adopted by the Faculty; the department discussed these questionnaires with teachers and made some changes on some indicators, in order to adapt it for the department needs. The study sample involves 30 teachers and 9 trainers (5Mathematics and 4 Science). Teachers as well as their students were informed one day in advance of the questionnaires administration. Students in majors such as early childhood education, humanities education also took part of the survey. For the data collection, 5 out of 7 of the board members of the Science and Mathematics Department distributed the questionnaires during the 12th week of the winter semester in 2016. In this way, the authors were sure that all students finished their assignments and they could have a clear opinion of the taught courses at the end of the semester. And, one week before students would have left off, before the final examinations. The 3 questionnaires used within this study were sequentially addressed to assess a) courses, b) teaching practice and c) students’ attitudes towards courses during the 3 years. Students assessed the courses in terms of: planning, presentation and teaching of the course, teacher-student interaction and assessment. Questionnaire 1 and 2 consisted of 23 closed-ended items; some were of Likert scale type and 2 open-ended questions. Questionnaire 3 consisted of 10 questions, 4 questions were open questions about skills gained, suggestions for improvement and new courses. All courses related to the Department (33 courses and 3 training practicum) were assessed by students in all semesters. For instance, Descriptive Statistics, Environmental Education and Health Education are compulsory courses taught by teachers of the Science and Mathematics Department for all majors. Results related to 20 courses and the 3 training practicum, taught in semesters 1, 3, and 5 are displayed in this paper. Quantitative and qualitative data emerged from a) 1005 respondents for the courses filled by students of different majors and b) 39 respondents filled by science and Mathematics students in their 5 th and 6th semesters for the training. As for the focus group, they were 34 students (15 science and 19 mathematics pre-service teachers in their last semester). They were administered a questionnaire in their last semester, during the 12 week of the spring semester 2016. All filled in a questionnaire detailing all the taught courses during their 3 years at the Faculty, and they provided suggestions for new courses and comments about their learning. Results and Discussion Results related to Research Question 1 This section displays students’ assessment of the courses in terms of: planning, presentation and teaching of the course, teacher-student interaction and the course assessment. Planning In general, 82.3% of students from all majors enrolled in science and Mathematics courses agreed that teachers indicate the course objectives and the methods of evaluation during the first session. Moreover, all students said that their trainer in teaching Science and Mathematics attends classroom observations and students’ explanation in schools 3 times (Table 1). 90 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 1. Students’ attitudes towards the courses and training Teacher (N=1005) Yes No Teacher sets the objectives of the course and the methods 827 178 82.3% 17.7% of evaluation at the beginning of the semester Teacher follows the course syllabus distributed to 804 201 students at the beginning of the semester 80% 20% Teacher /Trainer is committed to do make up sessions 807 198 80.3% 19.7% Trainer Keeps track of the work of student trainees in schools Trainer takes into account the scheduled and agreed dates with student trainees Trainer is committed to attend classroom observations and explanation in schools 3 times Indicators Trainer (N=39) Yes No - - 30 76.9% 9 23.1% 36 92.3% 39 100% 3 7.7% 0 Presentation of the Course, Teaching and Training Overall, in Table 2, students were satisfied with explanation; 73.2% said that their teachers explained always the lecture clearly, while 31.3% said that teachers use sometimes different teaching methods, such as discussion (28.2%) and ICT (13%), compared to 42.3% of students saying that their teachers never use ICT during instruction. In terms of communication, only 44.4% of students highlighted that teachers communicate with them about tasks, projects and literature to read, via e-mail and Whatsapp. As for trainers, 35.9% of students indicate that sometimes, trainer displays lesson plan models and preparations and discuss them with students trainees, 69.2% stressed that trainers listen always to the trainee, discusses the contents of the reports and their Portfolio. Table 2. Students overall assessment of teaching courses and practice Teacher Trainer Always Sometimes Never Always Sometimes Teacher explained the lecture clearly 736 205 64 6.4% 73.2% 20.4% Teacher/Trainer spurred discussion 661 283 61 65.8% 28.2% 6% Teacher uses teaching tools such as 449 131 425 Power point, LCD, ... 42.3% 44.7% 13% Teacher communicates with students 448 259 298 via e-communication (EMAIL, 44.6% 25.8% 29.7% WHATSAPP, ...) Teacher uses different teaching 495 315 195 methods 49.3% 31.3% 19.4% Trainer gives the student trainee 29 10 enough time to show how they explain 74.4% 25.6% lessons Trainer displays lesson plan models 13 14 and preparations and discuss them 33.3% 35.9% with students trainees Trainer listens to the trainee, discusses 27 9 the contents of the reports and their 69.2% 23.1% Portfolio Trainer organizes his/her lectures in 21 16 terms of sequence of concepts and 53.8% 41% ideas and linking them with examples of daily life? Indicators 91 Never - - 0 12 30.8% 3 7.7% 2 5.2% International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Teacher-Student Interaction Table 3 describes how was the class interaction between teachers and students based on students’ answers; teachers and trainers always manage the lecture calmly (76.3%) and trainers always create an atmosphere distanced from tension (71.8%). Moreover, 76.9% of students said that their trainer shows respect for the trainee for his or her efforts in preparing and implementing lessons. Table 3. Students overall assessment of class interaction Teacher Trainer Always Sometimes Never Always Teacher/Trainer deals with the 830 115 60 29 students/trainees without distinction 82.6% 11.4% 6% 69.2% between them and with respect Teacher's lectures are characterized by 765 189 51 dialogue and acceptance of others 76.1% 18.8% 5.1% Teacher/Trainer manages the lecture 767 193 45 28 calmly and away from the chaos/ 76.3% 4.5% 71.8% 19.2% atmosphere is distanced from tension and interactive work is dominant Trainer shows respect for the trainee 30 for his or her efforts in preparing and 76.9% implementing lessons Indicators Sometimes 7 23.1% Never 3 7.7% - - 6 15.4% 5 12.8% 7 17.9% 2 5.2% Motivation and Assessment In Table 4, students’ answers illustrate teachers and trainers modes of assessment; 63% pointed out that their teachers adopt always a method of teaching that motivates them to continue learning, and 43.6% indicated that their trainer gives them always positive feedback during lesson explanation in schools. As for class quizzes, 20.6% said that teacher never corrects questions of continuous assessment tests in the classroom, and 17.4% indicated that teacher never announces the results of periodic tests without delay (Quiz). On the other hand, 74.4% said that trainer always correct their work (lesson preparation, reports, portfolio ...) and sets appropriate scores. Table 4. Students overall assessment related to motivation and course assessment Teacher Trainer Always Sometimes Never Always Sometimes Teacher corrects questions of continuous 606 192 207 assessment tests in the classroom 60.3% 19.1% 20.6% Teacher announces the results of periodic 653 177 175 tests without delay (Quiz) 65% 17.6% 17.4% Teacher adopts a method of teaching that 633 230 142 22.9% motivates students to continue learning 63% 14.1% Trainer gives positive feedback to the 17 10 trainee while explaining the lesson 43.6% 25.6% Trainer helps the trainee to do self19 13 assessment 48.7% 33.3% Trainer corrects the work of the trainee 29 7 (lesson plan, reports, portfolio ...) and 74.4% 17.9% sets appropriate scores Indicators Never 12 30.8% 7 17.9% 3 7.7% Table 5 shows that 59.7% indicated that they benefit largely from the course and that 91.9% like to continue learning the courses in English or French. 92 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 5. Course overall students’ feedback (N=1005) Indicator Very much Somewhat Not at all I have benefit a lot from the course 600 328 77 59.7% 32.6% 7.7% I would like to learn the course Foreign language Arabic (English or French) 81 924 8.1% 91.9% Results related to 6th Semester Science and Math Students The Focus Group Figure 1 illustrates the focus group answers to courses they learnt during their 3 years-bachelor-degree at the faculty. Descriptive measures for LMD courses have a total score that ranges from 1.16 and 2.68. In general, students presented an above and/or an average answer about their teacher preparation. For instance, for their major, teaching science and teaching mathematics courses came in the first place. Moreover, students preferred courses of their minor in pure science courses for math students and vice versa. But, science students have a below score for teaching mathematics courses as their minor. Also, it shows that students scored the highest free courses (e.g., ethics of teacher profession, music education..) and humanities courses. As for general education, science students have an average answer to relevant courses, unlike mathematics. On the contrary, in psychology and technology in teaching, science and math students presented a score below the average. Figure 1. The focus group course mean spanned over the 6 semesters The focus group did not find relevant pure content knowledge for their careers. Students ticked the appropriate Likert scale items. Students’ answers are configured according to mean of 1.5 (Table 6). LMD Courses for Science at the Elementary Level Teaching (Major) (9 courses) Teaching (Minor) (3 courses) Pure Science, Statistics and Biology (10 courses) Table 6. Overall distribution of courses per credits No of Credits/ Science LMD Courses for Mathematics All Semesters Students at the Elementary Level Mean=1.5 26 1.61 Teaching (Major) (9 courses) 12 1.35 Teaching (Minor) (3 courses) 40 1.36 Pure Mathematics, Statistics, Computer Programming and Informatics 93 Math Students Mean=1.5 1.5 1.6 1.35 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey General Education (7 courses) Psychology (4 courses) Humanities (2 courses) Optional Courses/Minor Courses (4 courses) Training (4 courses) Technology (2 courses) Free Courses (4 courses) Language of Teaching (2 courses) Art (1 course) Total 24 2.01 12 1.34 7 2.03 20 1.84 14 8 1.24 1.21 8 2.54 7 1.6 2 180 2.68 (10 courses) General Education (7 courses) 1.9 Psychology (4 courses) Humanities (2 courses) Optional Courses/Minor Courses (4 courses) Training (4 courses) Technology (2 courses) 1.52 Free Courses (4 courses) Language of Teaching (2 courses) Art (1 course) 2.17 2.07 1.54 1.16 1.43 1.67 2 Answers of the focus group related to the science and math major and minor courses are detailed in Tables 7 to 12. Table 7. Majors in semester 1 of teaching of science/mathematics at the elementary level I find the courses important for my future No of Credits/ Science Students Math Students career as a teacher Total= 30 Credits Mean=1.5 Mean=1.5 Development of Educational Thought 4 2.25 2.21 Documenting Research 2 1.94 1.63 Psychology of Development 4 1.25 1.47 Computer fundamentals and its Applications 4 1.12 1.6 Descriptive Statistics 4 1.44 1.26 Electricity and Magnetism/Calculus 1 4 1.31 1.36 States and Organization of Matter/ 4 1.2 1.26 Geometry and Measurement1 Classification, Cytology and Histology/ 4 1.2 1.26 Arithmetic Table 8. Majors taught by science and Mathematics in Semester 2 I find the courses important for No of Credits/ Science Students Math Students my future career as teacher Total= 30 Credits Mean=1.5 Mean=1.5 Curricula 2 1.93 2.1 Psychology of Learning 4 1.31 1.63 Arts Workshop 2 2.68 2 History and Nature of Science/ 4 1.68 1.31 Introduction Teaching Mathematics Mechanics and Heat/Linear 4 1.18 1.38 Algebra Chemical Compounds and 4 1.88 1.31 Reactions/ Geometry and Measurement 2 Animal and Plant Physiology/ 4 1.06 1.42 Computer Programming 1 Human Rights 3 1.87 1.84 Language of Teaching 3 1.28 1.25 94 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 9. Majors taught by science and mathematics in semester 3 Majors/I find the courses important for my No of Credits/ Science Students future career as teacher Total= 30 Credits Mean=1.5 Evaluation of Learning 4 1.87 Classroom Observation 2 1.45 Techniques of Expression 4 1.93 Energy and Waves/ Abstract Algebra 4 1.25 Animal and Plant Reproduction/ 4 1.12 Computer Programming 2 Teaching Science 1 /Teaching Mathematics 1 4 1.36 Optional Course1 (Minor): Geometry and 4 1.68 Measurement 1/ States and Organization of Matter Optional Course 2 (Minor): Abstract Algebra/ 4 1.75 Cytology and Histology Table 10. Majors taught by science and mathematics in semester 4 Majors/I find the courses important for my No of Credits/ Science Students future career as teacher Total= 30 Credits Mean=1.5 Classroom Management 4 1.5 Practice Teaching 1 4 1.3 Technology in Teaching 4 1.31 Teaching Science 2/Teaching Mathematics 2 4 1.62 Environmental Education 2 1.5 Optional Course 3 (Minor): Geometry and 4 1.62 Measurement 2/Mechanics and Heat Optional Course 4 (Minor): Computer 4 2.31 Programming 1/Animal and Plant Physiology Optional Teaching Specialization Course 1 4 1.5 (Minor): Introduction to Math Teaching/History and Nature of Science Table 11. Majors taught by science and mathematics in semester 5 Majors/I find the courses important for my No of Credits/ Science Students future career as teacher Total= 30 Credits Mean=1.5 Sociology of Education 4 2.25 Science Evaluation and Curriculum/ 4 1.37 Mathematics Evaluation and Curriculum Health Education 2 1.51 Earth and Space Science/Teaching Informatics 4 1.93 New Trends in Teaching Science/Calculus 2 2 1.74 Practice Teaching 2 4 1.18 Action Research 1 2 2.2 Optional Course 5 (Minor): Calculus 4 2.33 1/Electricity and Magnetism Optional Teaching Specialization Course 2 4 1.31 (Minor): Teaching Mathematics 1/ Teaching Science 1 Table 12. Majors taught by science and mathematics in semester 6 Majors/I find the courses important for my No of Credits/ Science Students future career as teacher Total= 30 Credits Mean=1.5 The Lebanese Educational System 4 2.33 Citizenship Education 4 2.2 Educating Children with Special Needs 4 1.46 Action Research 2 2 1.56 Optional Course 6 (Minor): Practice Teaching 4 1.26 for Mathematics/ Practice Teaching for Science Optional Teaching Specialization Course 3 4 1.4 95 Math Students Mean=1.5 1.84 1.15 2.1 1.31 1.31 1.1 1.47 1.47 Math Students Mean=1.5 1.47 1.21 1.26 1.1 1.84 1.57 1.66 2.26 Math Students Mean=1.5 1.75 1.64 2 1.63 1.7 1.1 1.36 1.42 1.31 Math Students Mean=1.5 2.31 2.31 1.47 1.47 1.21 1.42 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey (Minor): Teaching Mathematics 2/ Teaching Science 2 Free Courses Total=8 Credits Free Course 1 Free Course 2 Free Course 3 Free Course 4 2 2 2 2 Science Students Mean=1.5 2.38 2.5 2.53 2.78 Math Students Mean=1.5 1.84 2.26 2.25 2.36 Results related to Research Question 2 Teachers Suggestions Some teachers submitted their suggestions for new courses and remarks on their taught courses directly to the head of department, while others submitted syllabi of their courses after they met with colleagues teaching the same courses. The main teachers’ suggestions were: o Some courses are taught in frontal teaching; others need to be updated in terms of content, teaching, students’ prerequisites and students’ specialization. o To redistribute some current courses, such as, Ethics of Teacher Profession, should be present in the 1 st semester and not in the 6th semester, as it is in the current situation. Science/Mathematics curriculum and evaluation should be placed in the 2nd semester and not in the 5th semester. In addition, it is only till the 3rd semester that students start to learn about didactics and to visit schools for training. Teachers and trainers stressed on assigning more credits for teaching practice. o To have the possibility for students to major in science and foreign language, science and sport, math and sport, music education and science, science and art education. o Teachers remarked that many courses are good but should be adapted to the student specialization and linked to his/her future career; for instance, fundamental statistics cannot have the same syllabus for science and early childhood education. The current situation limits the choices of students in choosing minors and elective courses. It turned out that major and minors are not in every student choice. o Some students aspire to develop their career by widening his/her horizons, such as, opening a school or after-school students tutoring center. Thus the need for students to gain skills in management and accounting. o To include courses such as, STEM courses, Quality management and science and industry. o Due to the need of many students graduating from the faculty, who have the possibility to teach science and Mathematics for Grades 8, 9 and 10 in the private sectors, it would be beneficial to set a new bachelor degree in science and Math education for the middle school level. This possibility is congruent with the Decree 2225 (Date: June 11, 2009) related to the Lebanese University, which highlights the mission of the Faculty of Education, that has the major role in teacher preparation of elementary and intermediate levels. o Finally, the LMD program is not applied properly at the Faculty of Education. In terms of the master, students graduating from the faculty cannot continue their graduate studies, because there is no M1(Professional Master) or M2 (Research Master) in science and Mathematics education for the elementary level. Students have to change to other disciplines or they have to continue in private universities or abroad. As for doctorat, only students coming from the Faculty of Sciences are allowed to continue their Master and Doctorate programs in science or Mathematics education for the secondary level. The Focus Group Suggestions Students in their last semesters proposed many ideas. Some of these ideas are the followings: o o o o There are lots of courses per semester. The daily schedule is too long. Four lectures per day over 5 days, and the school visits timing for training is not adequate or enough. Some courses should be removed, like in general education and psychology courses; there is redundancy in some themes. To let the student choose the minor, it is currently imposed by the administration. 96 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey o o o o o o o o o o Some courses like, Development of Educational Thought, Sociology of Education and The Lebanese Educational System, are taught with frontal teaching, and some content are rote memorized with no examples. To cancel some courses irrelevant to our specialization, especially the elective courses, that is actually compulsory ones. In the last semester, we learn only one course in teaching, and we do not learn any pure science or mathematics. We graduate and we’ve almost forget already many concepts! Because we are science and math teachers, we should have more courses related to science, such as, science and its applications in our daily life. To involve students in youth campaigns, related to health and the environment. To have the right to choose the elective or free courses and to be spread over the semesters and not focused in one semester (6th semester). The faculty should be equipped with computers, LCD projectors, lab materials and ACs. To start courses, such as, new trends in teaching science in the 1 st semester, in order to be on the right research tracks. Science and Math Curriculum in the 1 st semester, in this way, student can better prepare lessons for the school practice and classroom observation in the 2 nd semester. To have practice teaching courses during one semester, or during the last year after theoretical courses. To learn about culture and leisure courses (cooking, sport…). Results related to Research Question 3 Skills acquired by the focus group students Students in their last semester identified many social as well as pre-PCK skills. Some of the evoked skills are the followings: o Skills such as, self-assessment, self-confidence, communication with classmates and teachers. o Understanding basic science and math concepts and knowing and correcting students’ misconceptions too. o I learned how to transmit knowledge to children, taking into account their different cognitive abilities. o I learned how to prepare lessons plans, use various teaching and assessment strategies. o I learned how to manage classes and how to deal with children with ages 6-12. o I have acquired skills in doing and displaying research. o I learned to love teaching. Conclusion The main purpose of this study was to collect teachers’ and students’ suggestions and remarks about the LMD program, as well as students’ global assessment of courses and teaching practice related to the Science and Mathematics Department at the Faculty of Education, Lebanese University. İn sum, students gained the essential pedagogical content knowledge, such as, lesson planning, students’ misconceptions, and use of various teaching and assessment strategies. Courses and school practice relevant to the Science and Mathematics Department are done smoothly with no major problems; learning atmospheres were far away from tension, but students emphasized on the little use of ICT in some courses (e.g., pure subject content courses). Moreover, students in their last semester did not find the content knowledge courses useful for their careers. These students rate below the avearge both pure Science and Mathematics courses and they emphasize more on the importance on teaching courses related to their minors specialization. The focus group did not find the training practicum helpful at schools; because, unlike the actual time and credits given to training, they assure they need more time to spend in real classroom settings. İt was also striking the absence of skills such as, critical thinking skills and creative and lifelong learning skills. This is maybe due to the main use of frontal teaching in most courses, namely pure science and mathematics, as well as general education and psychology courses that relies on rote learning. The LMD program was implemented at the Lebanese University since 2005 (Decree 14840). This program was applied at the faculty during the academic year 2008-2009. Ayoubi (2011, slide 21) presented 6 main obstacles in implementing the LMD program at the Faculty. Noting that, Professor Ayoubi is the former dean of the Faculty (2010-2015) and a member of the Science and Mathematics Department. These obstacles confirmed by the present research, are as follow: students are overwhelmed with the heavy load they have, many instructors 97 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey did not change the lectures’ contents in the subjects they teach and their assessment practices, practicum courses and administration of the LMD program. Ayoubi (2011, slide 13) also recommended the followings: o Updating the specialties and content of courses. o Adopting new teaching and assessment methods: student-centered approaches to teaching and learning and continuous assessment. o Teachers are required to review their teaching and assessment methods individually and collectively. Limitations and Recommendations Based on data collected over 2 semesters, the Science and Mathematics Department presented a detailed report of the LMD situation and recommendations to the commission for the curriculum reform and program development. Literature has shown that students tend to assess positively the course if they like their teacher. Data was collected using questionnaires distributed to students rather than online, during their semester end. This is because of the lack of sufficient computers at the faculty. Students should be guided and assisted to use the computers for online evaluation. İn addition, students have concerns mainly about grades. One of the recommendations was to change the formative assessment; it is a heavy load for students to have during one semester: 2 projects or tasks and one quiz per course So for 8 courses per semester, the student is too busy doing 16 tasks and 8 quizzes! This situation makes students lack time to reflect on their acquired knowledge. Students in higher education should be more involved and to take part of any frequent assessment in the future at the Faculty level. They give thoughtful and valuable feedback. Also, future studies regarding students’ assessment should also involve teacher’s style (e.g., qualitative data collected from classroom observation). For future research too, details on pure subject knowledge courses in science and mathematics should be revealed in terms of teaching practice and content relevance. Future study will tackle the courses in semesters 2, 4 and 6, and main research ideas involve courses assessment according to students’ outcomes. Finally, from the very beginning, students were told about the aims and importance of course evaluations and how their evaluations are used. Students were serious in completing the questionnaires, because they knew that their feedback would make improvements to their courses. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful for the board members of the Science and Math Department at the Faculty of Education, Branch I, as well to teachers, trainers and students involved in this study. References (2018): ‫نموذجا‬-‫اللبنانية‬-‫الجامعة‬--‫لبنان‬-‫في‬-‫العالي‬-‫التعليم‬-‫واقع‬, from https://www.annahar.com/article/825673 [retrieved on 2 July 2018] https://www.ul.edu.lb. Ayoubi, Z. (2011). Revamping Teacher Education at the Lebanese University The New LMD Curricula at the Faculty of Education. 3rd Annual Conference of Educational Research Center on Teacher Education and Educational Measurement. [PowerPoint presentation]. Broumana, Lebanon. El Takach, S. (2018a). How Do Early Childhood Education Pre-service Teachers view Science and Scientists? Manuscript submitted for publication. El Takach, S. (2018b). BMI and Eating Habits for Preservice Teachers at the Faculty of Education, Lebanese University, International Journal of Education and Social Science, Vol. 5 No. 5, pp.36-49, www.ijessnet.com. European Commission for Higher Education (2012). Higher Education in Lebanon. European Commission Report (2017). Education, Overview of the Higher Education System: Lebanon. Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA). The Lebanese Erasmus+ National Office and the authorities of Lebanon, DOI: 10.2797/205, Website: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/index_en.php Ayoub 98 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Feistauer, D. & Richter, T. (2017) How reliable are students’evaluations of teaching quality? A variancecomponents approach, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 42:8, 1263-1279, DOI: 10.1080/02602938.2016.1261083 Lebanese University Website: www.ul.edu.lb Loo, B., & Magaziner, J. (2017). Education System Profiles: Education in Lebanon. World Education News & Reviews (WENR). http://www.wenr.wes.org Powell, J.W. (2011). Outcomes assessment: Conceptual and other problems. AAUP Journal of Academic Freedom. 2(2), 1–25. Rivzaa B. et al, (2015). Evaluation of higher education study programmes and their development trends as drivers of regional growth, Procedia Economics and Finance Science Direct, 4th World Conference on Business, Economics and Management, WCBEM, 26, 643 – 650 DOI: 10.1016/S2212-5671(15)008047. Available online at www.sciencedirect.com , http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/. Stitt-Bergh, M. (2015a). Three Frameworks for Successful Learning Outcomes Assessment. Conference: The Second International Conference for Assessment and Evaluation at Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Stitt-Bergh, M (2015b). Graduate Programs: Shifting the Mindset from Individual-Student to Program-level Assessment .AALHE “Actionable Assessment” Conference Proceedings The Fifth Annual Assessment Conference of the Association for the Assessment of Learning in Higher Education (AALHE) “Actionable Assessment” June 1 – 3, Lexington, Kentucky. Rickards, W. H., & Stitt-Bergh, M. (2016). Higher education evaluation, assessment, and faculty engagement In W. H. Rickards & M. Stitt-Bergh (Eds.), Evaluating student learning in higher education: Beyond the public rhetoric. New Directions for Evaluation, 151, 11–20. Stitt-Bergh, M., Rickards, W. H., & Jones, T. B. (2016). Beyond the rhetoric: Evaluation practices in higher education. In W. H. Rickards, & M. Stitt-Bergh (Eds.), Evaluating student learning in higher education: Beyond the public rhetoric. New Directions for Evaluation, 151, 123–132. The Supreme Committee for the Development of Curricula and Programs (n.d). A Power Point on ‫ ةال ل ب نان ي ال جام عت ف ي ال جدي د ال تدري س ن ظام‬Retrieved from www.ul.edu.lb [11 July 2018]. UNESCO Science report towards 2030 (2015). UNESCO Institute for Statistics (IUS). www.ius.unesco.org Author Information Suzanne El Takach Muhammad Rawas Lebanese University, Faculty of Education Unesco Area, Beirut / Lebanon Contact E-mail: suzanneeltakach@ul.edu.lb Lebanese University, Faculty of Education Unesco Area, Beirut / Lebanon Mohammad Dokmak Lebanese University, Faculty of Education Unesco Area, Beirut / Lebanon 99 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 100-110 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education A Functional Perspective on Gender Associated Patterns in Kurdish EFL University Students' Conversational Performance Barham Sattar ABDULRAHMAN University of Sulaimani Abstract: The current study focuses on gender associated communication styles that male and female Kurdish EFL senior university students have while using English face-to-face in academic contexts. It hypothesizes that both male and female EFL students have their own style of language with some similarities and differences. The differences might be due to male/female misunderstanding of each other while having face-to-face interaction. Moreover, the differences could not be noticed in academic communication of all Kurdish EFL university students unless the situational influences of each style are evaluated. The study concludes that social and cultural variations affect the language style used by Kurdish EFL university students. This study could be helpful for the university lecturers to have a better understanding of how the process of learning should be enhanced and made more effective and successful. Keywords: Gender, Gender-exclusive and Gender-preferential speech features, Communication styles Introduction Analyzing language with reference to certain sociolinguistic aspects (gender, ethnicity, social meaning, style, etc.) has become the main interest of sociolinguistics since 1960s (Hazen, 2014). Asking questions about women and men language has emerged with the women‘s movements in the 1970s; it has been investigated in different fields such as psychology, linguistics, speech communication, anthropology, etc. (Crawford, 1995). The current study, theoretically speaking, goes with Lakoff (1975) who explores and focuses on women‘s language in general. However, this study is distinct in that it tries to compare and contrast the language of female with that of men building on the fact that males and females do not communicate in the same exact way like each other in any society (cf. Holmes, 2008). It should be noted that in the present study language of female (LoF) and language of male (LoM) will be used instead of woman language and man language respectively since the word ―female‖ refers to all non-male human beings. Moreover, since gender is a social property that is acquired or constructed through an individual's adherence to certain cultural norms as well as to one's relationships with others (Meyerhoff 2011), the current study tries to explain the role of gender in the use of English by Kurdish EFL university students and whether male and female EFL university use the target language differently. The present study is believed to be of value for English language teachers since it raises their awareness of the idea of language and gender in the process of teaching in general and adequate act of communication in particular. Gender: An Overview Curzan (2003) states that the concept 'gender' is not well defined. Levy (1989: 306, cited in Halpern, 2012) refers to it as the social categorizing of individuals based on social standards and ascriptions. Wood (2009), on the other hand, points out that "gender grows out of cultural ideas that stipulate the social meaning and expectation of each sex" (p. 24). The basic distinction between gender and sex could be related to society, culture, history, etc. as regards the former and biological categories of human being related to the latter (cf. - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Shields, 2002; Cameron & Kulick, 2003; Penhallurick, 2010; Van Herk, 2012). However, the difference could be no more than a terminological issue (Meyerhoff 2011; Butler 2007; among many others). In brief, "labeling someone a man or a woman is a social decision" (Fausto-Sterling, 2000, p. 3). Interest in language and gender research becomes more popular and it can be considered as the most dynamic fields. Different gender uses different language and this, of course, influences the content and the style of language use; this phenomenon is called gender varieties or genderlects which mainly refer to studying the linguistic features of male and female communication ways. Predictably then, following this argument may lead one to confirm the fact that the idea of genderlect is to accomplish mutual understanding between the two gender and highly respect and regard other gender (cf. Owens, 2012; Becker & Bieswanger, 2006). Tannen (1990) who coins the concept of "genderlect" to show the fact that conversation style of males and females are different raises some other points about the possibility of teaching genderlect and changing the people's conversational styles by themselves. These two obvious possibilities, to an extent, can be achieved and people can do them if they want to. Furthermore, understanding genderlect gives an opportunity to speak differently when someone intends to. Besides, "understanding genderlect improves relationships." Gender-exclusive vs. Gender-preferential Speech Features According to Meyerhoff (2011), exclusive features refer to the features used by a particular user or to a particular sex speaker. For example, the term of "grandson" and "niece" can be referred to male and female, while "cousin" may refer to a male or female. However, when a feature is circulated among some speakers or a certain group members it is called to be preferential, especially, when it is used over and over by some members than others. Similarly, Coates (2004, p. 33) claim that the "differences between women‘s and men‘s usage where certain linguistic forms were reserved exclusively for the use of one gender or the other." can be regarded as gender exclusive. Meanwhile when it comes to explaining gender-preferential, one should be aware of the fact that LoF is different from LoM and "there are no forms associated exclusively with one gender; rather there is a tendency for women or men to prefer a certain form." For example, in British community, females use more Standard English forms while males do not (cf. Hall, 2003; Holmes, 2008). Theoretical Approaches to Gender It would be helpful to be alert to the fact that what has been mentioned by Lakoff who points out that this difference starts from word level to syntactic level, i.e., the words and the syntactic structures used by females could be different from males. Rowe and Levine (2015) state that being male or female is related to cultural expectations of behaviour; from the beginning, human beings behave as boy and girls then as men and women and they learn how to behave and use language appropriately. Moreover, there are languages in which formal rules are excited for males and females and this could be at the level of pronoun using, verb conjugations, pronunciation, etc. Undoubtedly, having different ways of using language with regard to the socially constructed category of gender can be examined. For Weatherall (2002, p. 102), gender refers not only to the "natural and inevitable consequence of one‘s sex" but has a direct connection to the one‘s everyday social interaction. Many, if not most, scholars (e.g., Lakoff, 1975; Tannen, 1990; Holmes, 2008; Johnston, 2008) do believe that the language used by men in their everyday communication is different from the one used by women. This idea proposes the notion of ‗women language‘ and ‗men language‘ (or LoF and LoM). Surprisingly, each language has its own characteristics which help scholars differentiating between the two languages. Cameron (1995, cited in Lund, 2003) believes that LoF is disadvantaged and lacking of some certain features which are used by males can be mentioned as a reason behind this deficiency. One should be alert to four different ways of describing, explaining, and predicting relationships of gender and language. The ways are called ‗theoretical approaches to gender‘. These theories might be used to guide one‘s attitudes, actions, and behaviour. To be more specific, the theories could develop gendered identities since each single theory attempts to explain different aspects of gender. So, the theories of developing gender and behaviour are divided into "biological bases of gender concentration", "gender interpersonal origins", "gender development and influences of cultural", and "critical perspectives on gender (Wood, 2009, pp. 40-63). For 101 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Leibenluft (1996: 163, cited in Halpern, 2012), gender is not an easy variable; it is complex since males and females are different not at the level of biology only but their life style and experience are different too and this of course affect their use of language. Meanwhile, Ochs (1992, cited in Cameron & Kulick, 2003) states that "the relationship between language and gender is almost always indirect, mediated by something else. Ways of speaking are associated in the first instance with particular roles, activities and personality traits, and to the extent that these roles, activities and traits are culturally coded as gendered, the ways of speaking associated with them become indices of gender" (p. 57). Gender Associated Communication Styles As a very important process in humankind‘s daily life, communication can be defined as a "dynamic, systemic process in which two levels of meanings are created and reflected in human interaction with symbols" (Wood, 2009, p. 32). In more recent studies, it is claimed that males and females speak differently. Building on some observations done by experts, the socio-cultural behaviour of both males and females shows that the features of LoM are different from female‘s. So, for Tannen (1995), the concept of "communication" does not simple refer to "saying what you mean. How you say what you mean is crucial, and differs from one person to the next, because using language is a learned behavior: how we talk and listen are deeply influenced by cultural expectations" (p. 138). Historically speaking, Rochefort (1665: 449, cited in Jesperson, 1922) states that "the men have a great many expressions peculiar to them, which women understand but never pronounce themselves. On the other hand, the women have words and phrases which the men never use, or they would be laughed to scorn. Thus it happens that in their conversations it often seems as if the women had another language than the men" (p. 237). Building on the Separate Worlds Hypothesis (SWH), as Maltz and Broker (1983, cited in Cook-Gumperz & Kyratzis, 2003, p. 603) claim, "as a result of gender segregation in childhood, with girls playing predominantly with other girls and boys playing predominantly with other boys, girls and boys evolve quite different goals for social interaction and distinct communicative style" (cf. Yule, 2006). According to Holmes (2008), the LoF is more polite than LoM; the degree of formality and politeness are more prominent in the LoF. More generally in the society, as Lakoff (1975, cited in Paltridge, 2008) states, females use polite linguistic forms and tag questions. Furthermore, the LoF is known as having the raise of intonation in declarative forms and using hedges and mitigating devices. Most commonly, females depend on using diminutives and indirectness; this leads experts to openly claim that the LoF includes more indirect forms and does not include expletives. Holmes (2008) states that when females communicate, unlike males, they tend to use more standard linguistic forms. On the other hand, most of the male used forms are vernacular. The main reason of this claim might be attributed to the fact that females are more conscious about their status while males are less status-conscious. So, one can easily claim that females use a standard language to declare that they belong to high social status. Wood (2009) states that "the theories you hold consciously or unconsciously influence how you see yourself as a woman or man, what you expect of women and men generally, and what possibilities you see as open to each sex" (p. 40). In sum, there are differences in human beings‘ daily conversation according to their gender. Sociologically speaking, the language used by females is characterized by a number of features such as hedges, filters, tagquestions, etc. Moreover, females tend not to use strong swear words and interruptions; they use a more standard and polite forms. Meanwhile the language of males in one way or another is different. O‘Loughlin (2000, p. 2) confirms the fact that "male and female conversational styles are quite distinct". Charachteristics of Male/Female Language Freeman and McElhinny (1996) summarize the differences stated by many scholars (Labov, 1972b; Holmes, 1984; Guy et al. 1986; McLemore, 1991, among many others) about male and female use of language. Building on what has been mentioned by these scholars, Freeman and McElhinny (1996) demonstrate the differences LoF and LoM as it is shown below (cf. Whitney, 1991). 102 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 1. LoF main characteristics Features of LoF Weaker expletives are reserved More polite Trivial or unimportant topics are discussed "Empty" adjectives are used Tag questions are more used Uncertain (question intonation in statements is used to show uncertainty) Speak in ―italics‖ (intensifies are more used) Hedges are more used Correct (hyper-) grammar is used No jokes Table 2. LoM main characteristics Features of LoM Stronger expletives are reserved Less polite Tag questions are less used Certainity Intensifies are less used Hedges are less used Correct grammar is not mainly focused on Jokes are usually told Holmes (2006) shows the most widely cited features of males and females styles of interaction. These features are listed depending on studies and researches in different community and social context over the last three decades. The following table manifests these universal features: Table 3. General features of feminine/masculine interactional styles (adapted from Holmes 2000a, cited in Holmes, 2006: 6) Feminine Masculine Facilitative competitive supportive feedback aggressive interruptions conciliatory confrontational indirect direct collaborative autonomous minor contribution (in dominates (public) talking public) time person/process-oriented task/outcome-oriented affectively oriented referentially oriented Becker and Bieswanger (2006) point out that the linguists' suggestions on different aspects of LoF and LoM can be summarized in four possible points: - "societies seem to expect a higher level of adherence to social norms from women than from men", - "women are a subordinate group in society and thus have to speak more carefully and more politely in order to avoid offending men", - "women use more standard forms than men because they are more status-conscious than men and try to signal higher social status by the way they speak", and "inverts the question and asks why men do not use more standard forms than they do." (p. 197). Furthermore, Maltz, and Borker (1982) offers explanations for the male/female communicative style features which basically depend on and highlight the personalities of male and/or female and the differences existed in social power. In this regard, they show different aspects of the explanation building on what has been presented by some scholars; for example, Zimmerman and West (1975; 1977) present the idea of social-political system in which males have power and are dominant in the society, so they enjoy being dominant in conversation too and displaying power as well. 103 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Conversational Performance Carroll (2008) points out that the concept of conversation refers to an oral discourse form that has no explicit rules; it is controlled and ruled by a number of implicit conventions (turn taking and/or topic change, for example) with reference to the language social use. Similarly, Tannen (1990) claims that "conversations are negotiations in which people try to achieve and maintain the upper hand if they can, and protect themselves from other‘s attempt to put down and push them around" (p. 24). However, one may state that almost for all conversations, people think of their ways of communicating in terms of appropriateness and this could include gendered ways. At the same time, people's expect comes from their experience of different meanings of the use of language in a certain context. Gender can be regarded as one of the most particular kinds of meaning and/or social identity which can be delivered via special linguistics choices. Moreover, people usually assess others behaviour in terms of its appropriateness in the context with regard to norms of gender. From this point, one can show evidence of how males and female should behave (Holmes, 2006). Proceudre and Data Collection In order to investigate gender associated language features of Kurdish EFL university students, three different sessions of conversation are videotaped. For collecting data for the present study, 10 (5 males and 5 females) Kurdish EFL university senior students at the Department of English, College of Basic Education, University of Sulaimani are randomly selected to have academic debate about "marriage in our society" which is a very close related issue to the students real life situation. All the students voluntarily agreed to participate in the conversations. The students are of different ages between 24 to 29 and only 4 of them are married as illustrated in the figure below. They are asked to argue against/for the 10 given points about marriage and its tradition in Kurdish community; the points are highlighted and shown on the white screen of the data show inside the classroom. The researcher intentionally chooses 10 points which are taken from two articles focused on Kurdish families and marriage patterns. Moreover, the students are asked to freely talk about these points. Furthermore, the senior students are divided into 2 groups so as to have 3 face-to-face settings. In each session, the students are given 30 minutes to communicate and have debate about the above mentioned points. In other words, there are three sessions: male-female, male-male, female-female, and each for session the students are allowed to communicate for half an hour. The students are totally free to use the style they while communicating. The researcher does not comment on their speech, but he only informs them about how start and gives them some instructions. Moreover, the reason of having a face-to-face conversation of the students can be supported by what has been mentioned by Fillmore (1974) as cited in Tannen (2005, p. 11) who states that "the language of face-to-face conversation is the basic and primary use of language, all others being best described in terms of their manner of deviation from that base." To have an accurate videotaped data, the students are asked to perform naturally and paying no attention to the process of videotaping. Data Analysis and Discussion The 10 extracts discussed by the EFL students about marriage are the following: - Topic 1 (T1): "marriage is one of the most important events for establishing alliances and creating social hierarchies within and between tribes". - Topic 2 (T2): "in Kurdistan, a widowed woman stays with her husband's family". 104 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey - Topic 3 (T3): "circumcision is an important rite of passage in a man's life. Most boys are circumcised between the ages of six and ten". - Topic 4 (T4): "female circumcision" - Topic 5 (T5): "marriage is about trust. It is not like buying a car". - Topic 6 (T6): "nowadays, marriages in our society become a sales industry". - Topic 7 (T7): "some families ask to a meeting between the boy and the girl so as to know each other". - Topic 8 (T8): "expensive wedding dress, great hall, big amount of gold, then congratulation happens!" - Topic 9 (T9): "we must be honest with each other to reduce the divorce rate". - Topic 10 (T10): "most Kurdish marriages are monogamous marriages. However, according to Islam a man may have up to four wives provided he can support them all and spends equal time with each; however, few men can afford even two wives". ("Kurdish Families - Kurdish Marriage Patterns", 2016; "Kurds - Marriage and Family", 2016) Throughout the video-taped sessions, it is noticed that Kurdish EFL university students have different styles of communication according to their gender. None of these styles, whether male's or female's is better than the other. Different styles give opportunities to claim that females in general intend to use more standard forms so as to show prestige or to claim that they do belong to high status family rank and this cannot be found in male's communication style. Male-Female Setting - The use of LoM as a concept could not be normal since the Kurdish society is governed by the male dominance. This affects the language used by lecturers and students of different gender and makes the male's language and behaviour dominant, meanwhile females become subordinate in this community and culture. Despite, males are dominant, female students talk and communicate most of the time in different group communication session. Moreover, the use of LoF could attract more attention. So, this leads one to claim that males are generally extrovert in terms of language use. To prove this, a male student starts a conversation and asked other students questions about marriage. A female student who spent most of her life in a western community takes the turn and attempts expressing her ideas and she is interrupted by a male student. So, males interrupt others even in academic context while female students tries to softly take turns and male students sometimes become silent so as to take turn and this is used a sort of strategy by male students. The overall results could be illustrated in table (4). - Most of the female students speak more carefully and avoid using slangs and taboo words. This makes them look more polite than the males and one may state that female students tend to be more conservative comparing with male students. The reason of this might be referred to the fact that because of the nature of Kurdish community, males are able to offend females if they want to. Surprisingly, a concept like "circumcision" is ignored by both male and female students, i.e., the idea of male and/or female circumcision has not been part of the students' academic conversation. The reason behind this could be attributed to the fact that in some Kurdish families the term "circumcision" is openly used in front of kids and this affects their idea and perspective when the kids become older. Moreover, neither males nor females talk about sexual terms; the internal structure of Kurdish families could be mentioned a reason behind this. - Generally, as it is observed, the students' conversation shows that in an academic context both males and females tend to use more standard forms. In other words, in a formal context such as university, most of the students attempt to be more polite and use highly selected expressions. Furthermore, because of their similarities in age and educational background, the male and female students use almost similar vocabulary and grammatical structure. - Because of having two different styles in the male-female setting, there is a kind of misunderstanding when the students debated on trust in marriage and how marriage becomes a sort of industry in the society. From this point, it is claimed that males have their own conversational style and females have their own particular language or communication styles, and this creates misunderstanding between the two different genders. - On one hand, it would be helpful to shed light on sentence intonation which is highly used by female students and this is not found in males' style. On the hand, the majority of male students 105 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey attempt to create a funny atmosphere to as to tell some certain jokes and use some joyful vocabularies and expressions. More generally, in the different gender group communication, the use of tag questions by female students can be mentioned as one of the most prominent features of female's conversational style. Further, one might be aware of the fact that female students use "fillers" (e.g., um, you know, well, actually, etc.) in most of their conversation even in a formal setting. - One can claim that in a male-female academic communication setting, it is obvious that male students' linguistic performance confirms the idea that they are more assertive, meanwhile females students usually connect their thoughts and ideas with emotion. It means that female university students' utterance is more emotional and they unconsciously provide support and assistance, i.e., more supportive. Moreover, sine English is the students' mother tongue most of them attempt to use their body language so as to support what they want to share and sometimes they used some certain Kurdish vocabularies in order to make their ideas clear and not maneuver around the intended expression. Table 4. Overall results of male–female setting T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T 10 % Lo M LoF Lo M LoF Lo M LoF Lo M LoF Lo M LoF Lo M LoF Lo M LoF Lo M LoF Lo M LoF Lo M LoF Lo M LoF Dominan ce Interrupti on Slang and Taboo Words Standar d Forms Intonati on Joke s + + - + - - + - - + + - + + - + - - - - - + + - - - - - - - - - + Tag Questions and Fillers - Assertiv e + + - + - + - - - + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + - + - + + + + + + - + - + + - + + + + - + 20% 70% 70% 30% - - - + + - + + + - + + - - - + + - + + - - - - + - - + + - + - + + - - - + - + - - + + + + - - + + - + + - + - - + - - + + + + + - 80% 70% 40% 60% 10% 20% 40% 30% 10% 80% 70% 0% - Female-Female Setting - In the same sex-group and during the permitted time, females feel that they have more freedom to interact with each other. For instance, While talking about the process of marriage, female students give details about each aspect of it supporting their ideas with similar examples, though the students are asked to focus on the ideas mentioned above; that is, each female student tries to give an example about the same situation so as to explicit her opinion. So, giving example(s) for the same event or similar situation can be done by all female students and this might be considered as one of the characteristics of female communication style. Moreover, most of their examples are 106 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey full of tag questions especially "isn't it?, don‘t they?, wouldn't you?, etc." as if they were attempting a sort of agreement while discussing marriage issues. - So as to keep interaction on, female students do their best to support the speaker via non-verbal behavior (e.g. nodding the head, interjections like Uhh. Umm, yeah, etc.). This, however, is not noticed in male-male interaction group. Females do intend to show their linguistic behaviour in a way that all of them are cooperative to have a soft turn taking without having direct interruption. Tough, in academic context, there is a sort of interruption among female students themselves. At the same time, none of them performed any example of swearing; this could be done intentionally since swearing words (e.g., "by God") are frequent in daily women interactions. - When one explains the forms of female students in a Kurdish academic context, one should pay attention to the fact that almost all the students use polite forms, meanwhile female students tend to claim that they use more standard linguistic forms than males. Moreover, the female students seem to be less direct, trying to cope with politeness principle of tact and non-threatening towards their group mate (e.g., May I start first?, Would you mean that?, I am terribly sorry for this situation, pardon, etc.). - Intensifying adverbs such as "very" and "so" are heavily used by this group of student. The female students might intend to have an effective conversational style, they uttered examples such as "She was very beautiful when she got married, My mom was very very helpful concerning marriage, I am so glad today, etc." Most of the female students look very serious as if they express their ideas from their hearts and this makes them very emotional. Table 5. Overall results of female–female setting T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T 10 % Tag Question s + + + + + Nonverbal Behavior + + + + + + 60% Interruptio n Swearin g Words Standar d Forms Principle of Tact Intensifying Adverbs + - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - + + + 50% 10% 0% 70% 80% 80% Male-Male Setting - Linguistically speaking, having differences in male and female conversation styles is natural because language can be considered as a social phenomenon and each single gender performs in a way that satisfies different social attitudes. This goes with Trudgill's (2000) statement that male and females are not different in terms of physiology rather they have differences in their social roles and this makes them speak and think differently. - Generally speaking, when the students are aware of the gender differences in their conversation outside and/or inside university, they become more competent and know how they argue different life related issues in English. It means that being aware of male/female communication style differences can be regarded as a good point so as to enhance one's communicative abilities. - In this session, as it is videotaped, the male students do not focus on using more standard language, though they pay attention to the degree of formality. Surprisingly, the male students do not encourage each other in order to make the conversation continues and they interrupt each other very often unlike what they do in male-female setting. 107 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey - Because of sociolinguistic and psychological factors, males and females act differently. Their differences affect their communication styles, i.e., the stylistic differences of male and female university students' conversation styles could be influenced by some socio-cultural factors and psychological status of language users. Building on this claim, one can notice that the male students' linguistic performance in some aspects is quite different from the female students' conversational styles. For example the males usually dispute more frequently and are more direct and explicit than female students and this may show their performance less polite. Meanwhile, their view towards the discussion topic is more rational. - Most commonly, in this group of students, male-male conversational setting, most of the male students attempt to send message and, to some extent, ignore their group mates' views. This means that most of the male students do not ask extra questions so as to elaborate on the main topic and do not encourage their group mates via focusing on their notes. - Although the male (and females in previous sessions) students tend to perform formally, they sometimes could not control themselves to unintentionally use expressions such as "bloody, damn, goddamn, etc."; these words are considered to be socially offensive, meanwhile in this context are not. Building on this, one may claim that the male's conversation style may have the quality of being profane. - In the male-male session, almost all the students do their best to provide amusement, though they perform in an academic context. So, this gives an opportunity to state that male students have tendency to jokes and their sense of humor is different from female students. Moreover, laughing is not noticed in the two previous settings. Meanwhile, the male students provide comic examples after a very short period of time. Furthermore, even when they tell jokes (sometimes, in Kurdish), they interrupt each other without taking permission. - Finally, as is has been notices, male students at the university level and in an academic context use more tag questions. Standard Language T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T 10 % + + + 30% Table 6. Overall result of male–male setting Directness Sense of Formality Interruption and Humor Explicitly + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 60% 80% 70% 60% Tag Questions + + + + + 50% Conclusions The present study was intended to have a functional view on how language is used by undergraduates in an academic context. Building on the analyzed data, the present study has come up with a number of conclusions: 1. The social expectations affect the use of language by male and female. This leads one to claim that different perception and/or expectation about communication styles of different genders influences male-female role and behaviour in the society. Moreover, in Kurdish community, it is expected that males can be more active in almost all social activities including the use of language in a male-female context. 2. The social and cultural variation affects the language used by Kurdish EFL university students. Since the students have different ways of thinking, they use different forms of language. 108 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey 3. Differences in gender create male/female language at the level of content and the conversational style as well since the early years of childhood. This, in turn, affects their style and the content of their utterances in social settings. 4. Some socio-cultural and psychological differences between males and females affect their communication style. According to this claim, one might state that since both male and female undergraduates have different perspective and intention while having a conversation, and this, consequently, creates different conversational styles. 5. Because of having different subgroups of friendship of males and females, undergraduates showed different styles of communication. 6. Despite the fact that investigating the university students' communication styles in terms of gender difference might not give a complete image, the current study attempts to make male and female university lecturers more aware of having differences in male and female students' communication so as to focus on this phenomenon while teaching English and inform the students about conversation styles and gendered discourse. 7. Investigating differences in male/female communication styles could be helpful for the university lecturers to have a better understanding about how their students use English inside the classroom. 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Author Information Barham Sattar Abdulrahman Department of English, College of Basic Education, University of Sulaimani Sulaimani / Iraq Contact E mail: barham.abdulrahman@univsul.edu.iq 110 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 111-115 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education The Teaching of the CAD in the Curriculum of Graduation in Technology Ghezail ABDI University Oran 2 Habib ACHACHE University Oran 2 Abstract: This work aims to study How to teach the CAD (computer- aided drawing) in higher education for masters training level, then to propose, to assess the pedagogical devices established to facilitate the learning of the CAD, And also to approach learning of the CAD via the 3D software. The proposals of the new method will also be analyzed with higher education, and its need to integrate in masters degree program.In the industrial sector, the training is largely irrelevant with reality, And students master level is low for all XAO. The work aims to examine how to teach the CAD in master level in Algeria.IMSI of Oran (Industrial Maintenance and Safety Institute) is a national institute, and therefore making this study, as if we did for the whole of Algeria.The study was carried out on the curriculum of the five years of teaching with a balance sheet, from the proposals will be put forward. Keywords: Innovation, Computer, Design, CAD, CAM, CADM, Automatic, Manufacturing, Robotics, Teaching, Graduation Introduction and General Organization of Educations for the Electromechanical Engineering Given that the constant evolution of science, With the multiple varieties of situations and contexts, the mutations of societies, the socio-economic systems and technological developments in order to ensure specific training, practical and integrated which promotes personal development and a skilled academic training . These programs have been developed to be aimed for Master students of the IMSI of Oran. For the content of this program of the 1st year licence in both 1 st & 2nd semester, in electromechanical engineering, we find that" Design and Standards 1 and 2 " module With about 5% of the program, And contains 84% on generalities about drawing, And only 16 % of initiation into the computer-aided design. The content of lessons of 3th year, 4th year and 5th year have been developed by teachers of the IMSI. 3rd year program for electromechanical sector of study includes the module of mechanical construction with 14% of the program. Teaching of this subject matter is summarized as follows: - Knowledge Contribution of technology components. - The Functional Analysis of simple mechanisms - Mapping and graphical construction using the rules of the design school. - The facility of drawing definition and overall. A mechanical manufacturing module with 11% of the program, Through this material the student has to know the basic operations for turning, milling, drilling, tapping, etc .it will be the study of the various accessories and cutting tools ,The Visualization, the identification of the movements Of the different machines, the choice of cutting conditions, realization of the surfaces on different machines and adjustment operations .the student has to develop a logical thinking of forecast ranges of machining on the basis - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey of design of definition and technological data of manufacture, it will be able to write a range of production taking into account the constraints and specifications related to the drawing. M1 Master program for the electromechanical industry contains the Engineering Office (research department) module with only 15 % of the program. Teaching of this subject matter is summarized as follows: Knowledge Contribution of technology components. - Functional Analysis on a topic representing a real mechanism. - graphical construction or applying the rules of establishment of drawings. - Calculation and Sizing of the mechanism. The whole constitutes a technical construction file. Methods office module with 11% of the program. The student must be able to work out on the basis of the documents of methods office and technological data, a manufacturing file including : The range of manufacture, the crude calculation, the analysis of phase, The calculation of the time and also provides the means of fixtures for machining. Manufacturing module project with 11% of the program. The goal of this topic is to introduce the student to the process engineering in the context of a problem situation in construction of mechanical manufacturing technology, and Therefore to highlight the knowledge gained by the implementation of a manufacturing project. M2 Master program for the electromechanical industry contains the CADM (computer- aided design and manufacturing) module with 11% of the program. The teaching of this subject matter is summarized as follows: Definition of the CADM, CAD (computer-aided manufacturing), CAM, Systems manufactures, their definitions and classifications, the Cellular workshops, flexible workshops, And the Robotics elements " CNC robots, the conveyor systems, and the self-guided vehicles". A module of automation of the means of production with 5% of the program, its objective can be supported by the realization of mini projects related to themes of automation of machine tools mechanical manufacturing. A module of machining in digital control with 11% of the program, the objective of this material is to know the different types of command, the programming language, the study of the different functions, and the achievement of the surfaces on the different machines. Content of the teaching of the CAD 1st Year: design and Standards 1 and 2 (11% of the program), with a small portion on the CAD. 3rd year: Mechanical engineering (14 % of the program) and mechanical Manufacture (11 % of the program). 1st year Master ( 4th year ) : office of research and methods . 2nd year Master (5th year): CADM. General Criticisms At the level of the IMSI, teaching the CAD is so little integrated in the training in technical drawing. It is necessary to introduce this training in the schedules of the drawing, without too amputation of the latter. With the use of a limited hardware, we would have to combine this training in the traditional teaching of the drawing on the five years. The student of the IMSI must be able to speak and understand the graphical means used in mechanics , master basic skills related to manufacturing processes Know the methods and working tools used in designing , size mechanical components of bases in traditional deign representing a more significant , even indispensable . 112 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey It should also be noted that, all art request of the time and effort even for the CAD. The latter is designed to familiarize the student with the tool of computer aided drafting, to understand the advantages and limitations, It needs exercise sessions to allow him to focus on the work of the screen management techniques of drawing mechanical construction projects . As well, the CAD. allows you to design and produce on the computer screen drawings of all kinds. It will easily and quickly make changes. It may at any time view his work steps and then print the final result. In any case, this apprenticeship repetition over the five years is essential. Proposals The objective of this work is to propose and assess the pedagogical devices set up to facilitate the learning of Computer Assisted Drafting, in these crucial representation of a design methodology phases , we report an experiment conducted as part of the training of students at the IMSI of Oran . General Purpose The use at the beginning of the training in partial autonomy of simple CAD software. Public A class of first year students in electromechanical. First grade class students have no knowledge in drawing. After a year of basic training in "drawing and standards 1" module and over the first semester, we start this training at the beginning of the second half of the same year. This class at 1h 30 of TD and 1h 30 of drawing courses per week for a single class group. The group will be drawing on classic work for a week. Once the group has completed its work sequence, it will resume the same work of drawing course on the CAD using computers. Material - The computer lab, in electromechanical engineering Department of the IMSI of Oran. The software. Note: Only one student per workstation. Sequence 1: Presentation of the Hardware and Software With the whole group and after the distribution of a brief documentation on the hardware configuration of a CAD workstation, we present the different parts of a workstation and work positions, with manipulations of the DVD and launch the software, we have seen quickly the possibilities of drawing software. Sequence 2: Basic Features of the Software With the help of a course with various basic commands, the student will form the functionality of the software: - Launch of the software. - Moving the mouse. - Selections of commands by menus, which must include a selection of graphics tablet orders to work in full screen for drawing. At the end of the sequence the student must be able to start the equipment and run the software. - Learn about the screen and drop-down menus. - Draw, delete basic objects. - Zooms make. 113 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey - Save and load his work. - Define the limits of drawing. Students will be highly motivated, which will present Other opportunities of the software as more complex orders. The seizure of the coordinates of the points is carried out in a dynamic way visually on the screen. At the end of the sequence the student must be able in partial autonomy, to the net and draw a room. Sequence 3: Basic Controls of Windows With the whole class at the computer laboratory, using the CAD by introducing the windows basic commands: - System concepts Copies of files Deleting a file Sequence 4: Draw a Component Part Based on this preparatory study, the students realize & perform drawings a component part from a tutorial. Each group of students took over these works, of hard disk to copy on a flash drive, students for this must be placed in the right directory. Notions and commands of change directory and sub-directory will be introduced during this sequence. Sequence 5: Make the Assembly of Parts Each group of students will have to draw parts and will have to make their assembly by using a tutorial. Sequence 6: Make the drawing for each piece and the drawing of all the parts to be drawn The student must make the implementation plan of the items designed and the implementation plan of the overall drawing. This sequence will introduce the concept of "implementation plan of work" The student will have to complete, erase, drawing new lines in order to achieve the requested views. End of the first year of training in the CAD. Repeat sequences of 4 to 5 for the third year and the last year with a more advanced level, with more difficult parts and complicated assemblies. By following this method the student will be able to acquire the concepts of the CAD and we will be able to respond to the requirement of the industrial sector by forming good students in the field of computer - aided drawing. Conclusion This training at the CAD with the"3 dimension" software easy access, will permit students to have a first approach to the use of the computing in their field. This initiation (60% of the schedule of the drawing module) will be supplemented by colleagues of other modules and practical workshop works which use CAM and CNC software. This computer assisted drafting program will be able to respond to a growing demand of designers called to prepare projects in the sectors of the industry. References H Fry, S Ketteridge, S Marshall , A handbook for teaching and learning in higher education: Enhancing academic practice (3rd edition, Enhancing Academic Practice, 2008 ) 114 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey M Tight, Researching higher education (2nd edition, McGraw-Hill Education (UK), 2012) WANG Wei,WANG Dian-jun,SHEN Ai-ming,LIN Shun-ying,CHEN Ya,DAI Feng-yan, Reform and Exploration of the Mechanical and Electronic Engineering Practice Teaching System Based on CDIO Training Model, Journal of Anhui Normal University(Natural Science), 2010-02 LIU Shao-hai,LIU Chen, Construction of Electromechanical Engineering Training Center Based on CDIO, Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Department,North-China Science ﹠ Technology College,Beijing 101601,China, Research and Exploration in Laboratory, 2011-12 YU Yue-min; LIU Bao-liang; ZHAO Chun-xiang; WU Yun-peng, The Exploration and Practice of Implementing Case Teaching of Mechanics Basic Course in Universities, Heilongjiang University of Science and Technology College of Science,Harbin 150022,China,Value Engineering, 2013-23 IMSI d’ORAN, Programme de formation en électromécanique (2016) Author Information Ghezail Abdi Habib Achache Industrial Maintenance and Safety Institute , University Oran 2 Name of Institution or University 170 bp 170 EL Mnawer, Oran / Algéria Contact E-mail: ghezailabdi@yahoo.fr Industrial Maintenance and Safety Institute, University Oran 2 170 bp EL Mnawer, Oran / Algéria 115 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 116-122 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Using QR Codes for Improving the Educational Process of Students with Hearing Loss Dia ABUALNADI The University of Jordan Ahmed AL-SALAYMEH The University of Jordan Feda’ YOUSEF The University of Jordan Ghazi AL SUKKAR The University of Jordan Mohammed HAWA The University of Jordan Abstract: A QR (Quick Response) code is a two-dimensional barcode originally designed for use in the automotive industry. QR codes contain encoded information which is often a URL of a website. In this work, we investigate using QR codes to help teachers convey information to students suffering from hearing loss. Using QR codes for education can be highly engaging and can provide a new way to give students new information. Teachers can help deaf and hearing impaired students address their needs by giving them additional support to access audio-visual videos posted online. During classes teachers can also record their lessons in sign language and post them online for students to access from home while completing homework assignments. The homework sheets can have QR codes linking to the teacher’s directions or video files of that assignment’s targets/overview, online tutorials or other websites for additional support. Additionally, teachers can put their PowerPoint presentations online and provide the students with the QR code to access them. QR codes linking to pre-selected websites for research can be created and printed by the teacher ahead of time and given to students in the laboratory, and the students can use their tablets (equipped with camera and Internet access) to read the code and open such websites. Lastly, QR codes can be used to give students immediate feedback when QR codes embedded in classroom handouts and homework sheets link to the answers to problems so students can check their work. Keywords: Mobile education, QR codes, Disadvantaged students, Video teaching material Introduction A QR code is a matrix barcode that stores data in two dimensions. Specific imaging devices (QR Scanners) can read this matrix and retrieve the stored data. QR codes were invented in 1994 by Denso Wave for vehicle tracking during manufacturing (Goyal et al., 2016). Several standards for data encoding in QR codes are available (Youan et al., 2011). Smart mobile devices such as smart phones and tablets can be used as QR code scanners. One common use of QR codes is web address encoding where a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is encoded in a QR code to provide more information about products (Goyal et al., 2016). The QR code is printed via specific software to represent the URL and when it is scanned by a smart phone or tablet, it will open a web browser and go to the specified web address given in the URL. - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey There are many specific applications that use QR codes. It has been used, for example, in security (Bani-Hani et al., 2014). It is also used to share information on certain products, and implement discount coupons when performing a purchase via mobile phones (Sungkur et al., 2016) (Torres-Jimenez et al., 2018). The concept behind using QR codes is that they have large storage capacity, variety of data can be embedded in them such as plain text, URL, SMS, e-mail address, contact information, etc. Their scanning is possible through different platforms by developing mobile device decoding applications, which can read different types of data like numeric, alphanumeric, binary, etc (Sungkur et al., 2016). The continuous advancement in new technologies allowed the creation and development of new techniques to enhance and contribute to the teaching process. These new techniques make teaching more interactive, flexible and open. The daily use of mobile technologies, for example, favors the exploration of new dimensions in teaching and learning processes. It helps both teachers and students (Bekteshi, 2015) (Hayhoe, 2015) (Sung et al., 2016). Primarily, digital education has three components: The content, the technology platform, and the delivery infrastructure (Haiyan & Dongming, 2012) (Hakkani-Tur et al., 2011). Implementation of QR codes for digital education fits within these components. Indeed, QR codes have been implemented in many aspects of the education system such as: teaching aid in class rooms with the help of mobile devices, automated exam process, certificate generation system, enhancing security in identity documents and digitized mark sheet system, and many others (Sungkur et al., 2016) (Torres-Jimenez et al., 2018). In this work, QR codes are used in class to help teachers convey information to students suffering from hearing loss. Demonstration videos (that include Arabic subtitles and Arabic sign language interpreter along with the educational video) were developed via the video editing software Camtasia. Such videos were prepared at the University of Jordan with the help of instructors from Al-Amal secondary school. The videos are uploaded to a server and when a student scans the proper QR code, it permits the student to connect to the server to watch the video. Identifying the Target Groups An analysis survey was conducted aiming to examine the readiness and use of mobile technologies in educational institutions in Jordan, and seeking to assist in developing plans, strategies and programs that support education reform for people with special needs. Depending on the information gathered by means of questionnaires and interviews, and the analysis of the results; the target groups and their profiles, level of social adaptation, learning environment, abilities and specific needs were consequently defined. The target groups of this study are shown in Table 1 along with the Jordanian university that conducted the relevant interviews and surveys for a specific target group. Table 2 summarizes the number of collected survey samples by each university. Table 1. Jordanian universities responsible for the study target groups Target group Responsible university General Secondary Schools for The University of Jordan (UJ) Children with Special Needs Higher Council for Affairs of persons The University of Jordan (UJ) with Disabilities Gazza refugees camp Jordan University of Science and Technology (JUST) Nazik Al Hariri welfare center for Princess Sumaya University for special education Technology (PSUT) Deanship of Students Affairs at each UJ, PSUT, and JUST Jordanian University 117 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 2. Number of collected survey samples by each university University Instructor’s Student’s questionnaire questionnaire UJ 35 57 JUST 29 53 PSUT 50 15 Total 114 125 Schools for Children with Special Needs Students with special needs started to receive educational services in Jordan in the late 1960s. It was clear that these services were mainly focused on people who are visually impaired or deaf - those who had disabilities which were obviously physical instead of disabilities related to learning. In 2010 the Ministry of Education in Jordan established two specialist departments in order to provide assistance: The department of special education combined with the department of talent (National e-learning strategy for higher education, 2009). Al-Amal Secondary School for Deaf Students The work presented here involved close cooperation with the Al-Amal secondary school for deaf students. This is a nonprofit public institution located in Jabal Allweibdeh in the middle of Amman, the capital of Jordan, about 8.5 km away from the University of Jordan. The system of education in Al-Amal school is "coeducational", where girls and boys are jointly educated in the same classes. The approximate number of registered students is 109, while the number of staff is 32. Students at Al-Amal school are divided into two categories: The first is deaf students (representing the majority of students in the school). Students who are found to be educationally deaf are being taught in classes where sign language is the primary language for communication and for teaching/learning, and where the written Arabic language is taught/learned by way of translation (i.e., bilingual education). The second group is students with hard of hearing. Those are students with hearing impairments, who are being taught in classes where the Arabic (spoken) language is the main language, and where some sign language and total communication are used to clarify and ease the learning process. The classification of students is done by a thorough assessment of the hearing loss, the student’s capability to utilize his residual hearing, and the student’s language-level (i.e., the student’s possibility of acquiring the spoken language through hearing). Teaching/Learning Methods at Al-Amal School Since the education of the deaf needs so much extra teaching/learning material beyond textbooks and exercise books, the school also uses ample facilities for material production. Primarily, a good photocopying machine and also ample supplies of paper, cardboard, crayons etc. The staff depends on visual-based learning as the main method of teaching. The languages used in the classroom by the teachers are: sign language and written English and Arabic languages. It is worth mentioning that courses in sign language for families and for beginner teachers, interpreters and other professionals working with the deaf are being offered by the expert teachers in the school. Teacher Training Qualified and motivated teachers are appointed by the school. The teachers are devoted and skillful. Training workshops for the teachers are being organized regularly, but they still need to receive training on new techniques and tools to implement newly acquired teaching approaches in the classrooms. 118 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Pre-Vocational Training Program Al-Amal school has pre-vocational programs. Experience at the school shows that not many of the deaf students are capable of receiving their higher education. Furthermore, for those who finish their education, they will have to compete on unequal terms with their hearing peers in a field where unemployment is growing in Jordan. Hence, pre-vocational programs are offered at the school. Video Processing and Editing In our study, we implemented QR codes to improve the process of educating students with hearing loss. Twenty-two videos were produced in different aspects of science such as physics, biology, geology and chemistry for students at Al-Amal school. The videos were designed for deaf students and those who suffer hearing problems. Figure 1 summarizes the design plan and target group for this effort. Pilot Class: 10th grade Age: 15-16 Pilot Courses/Teaching materials to be developed: Physics/Chemistry (11) lessons Characteristics:  Mixed classroom and labs.  (12) Students per calss.  (6-7) hrs daily class.  Each lecture is (45) mins.  Methods to be used: QR Code QRC Scanner Apps: Red Laser, Qrafter or any other mobile app. Biology/Geology (11) lessons Physics lectures are being offered to students three times a week while Biology is given two times a week. Open Recourses:  iPads.  Computer lab  Science lab Implementation Plan:  Teachers can easily create QR codes A short manual and training session given to teachers.  Excite students about upcoming material To connect a QR code to the "Figure" or “Question of the day” and use it as an anticipatory set to get students thinking about upcoming information.  Link QRC to favorite websites.  Make interactive worksheets  In the case of films the free video sharing portal YouTube or Flicker is applicable, and teachers can upload sets of their own videos or tutorials there.  Teachers can put small icons in the middle of the QR Codes to indicate the content. Figure 1. Course design plan The illustrative videos were edited by adding Arabic language subtitles in addition to an Arabic sign language interpreter. The produced videos were divided into three windows, a big one with the illustration of the lesson, a side one with the interpreter and a lower one with Arabic language subtitles (see Figures 2 and 3). 119 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey The teacher produces a QR code connected with the video such that when the student scans the code, a software on the student’s mobile device will call the video and run it so that the student will have extra information regarding the lesson being discussed. In this work, illustration videos and educational supplemental material for students (that includes sign language) were developed and linked with the scientific content of their regular lessons via the QR code technology. The Arabic subtitles (as text) and the Arabic sign language interpreter were added to the video via the Camtasia video editing software. Synchronization between the video frames, the Arabic subtitles and the sign language interpreter was a challenging problem. Figure 2 shows a screenshot of the process of editing a video using the Camtasia software. The topic of the video was earthquakes and Richter scale. The figure shows the three parts of the video: the demonstration video, the Arabic subtitles and the Arabic sign language interpreter. Figure 3 shows another sample video after being edited, with all the three parts running synchronously on a test machine. Figure 2. Screenshot of editing a video Figure 3. An edited video running on a test machine The process of recording the Arabic sign language interpretation is illustrated in Figure 4. Figure 5 shows a class in which students are using the QR code (handed by the instructor) to launch the educational video to get information about the topic being discussed. Both students and staff report high level of engagement from students using this teaching technique (see Figure 6). 120 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Figure 4. Recording the Arabic sign language interpretation Figure 5. Students using QR codes to launch demonstration videos Figure 6. Engagement of students in the learning process Results and Conclusions QR codes were successfully implemented in the process of improving the quality of education for students with hearing loss in Jordan. Several videos were produced in different aspects of science for students who suffered hearing problems. The videos were edited by adding Arabic subtitles and Arabic sign language interpreter for the benefit of those students. QR codes were used to download and activate such videos. For the future, we anticipate that QR codes can also be encoded such that the teacher can give a quiz, conduct a survey, or send a questionnaire to the students. This technique can also be applied in schools that suffer a shortage in physical resources such as the disadvantaged regions of the country to do lab experiments in all scientific disciplines. The experiments can be done in a center by qualified teachers, recorded on video and watched by many students. The videos can be edited by a video editing software to add animations and other useful information. QR codes can be handed out to students at schools in the disadvantaged regions, where the QR codes direct the students to the location of the video, so that when a student scans the code via his/her mobile device, it will call the video and run it on the mobile device and the student can see that information. 121 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Acknowledgements This work was funded by the Erasmus+ program of the European Union under the project: Improving Higher Education Quality in Jordan using Mobile Technologies for Better Integration of Disadvantaged Groups to Socio-economic Diversity/mEQUITY, project number: 561527-EPP-1-2015-1-BG-EPPKA2-CBHE-JP. The authors would also like to thank Dr. Reema Shdafat and Ms. Maryana Nimri from Al-Amal school for their valuable effort in this project. References Bani-Hani, R. M., Wahsheh, Y. A., & Al-Sarhan, M. B. (2014). Secure QR code system. Proceedings from IIT: 10th International Conference on Innovations in Information Technology. Al-Ain, UAE: IEEE. Bekteshi, L. (2015). Information and communication technology and students with disabilities. European Scientific Journal, 11(22), 337-347. Goyal, S., Yadav, S., Mathuria, M. (2016). Exploring concept of QR code and its benefits in digital education systems. Proceedings from ICACCI: International Conference on Advances in Computing, Communication and Informatics. Jaipur, India: IEEE. Haiyan, W., & Dongming, H. (2012). Mobile education design and implementation of video teaching material. Proceedings: International Conference on Industrial Control and Electronics Engineering. Xian, China: IEEE. Hakkani-Tur, D., Tur, G., & Heck, L. (2011). Research challenges and opportunities in mobile applications. IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 28(4), 108-110. Hayhoe, S. (2015). Utilising mobile technologies for students with disabilities. In Jones-Parry, R., (Ed.) Commonwealth education partnerships 2015/16. Commonwealth education partnerships, Nexus Strategic Partnerships, Cambridge, UK. National e-learning strategy for higher education 2007-2010. (2009). In Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Jordan. Retrieved from https://www.uop.edu.jo/download/research/members/Gissa-elearn-jordan.pdf Sung, Y.-T., Chang, K.-E., & Liu, T.-C. (2016). The effects of integrating mobile devices with teaching and learning on students' learning performance: a meta-analysis and research synthesis. Computers & Education, 94, 252-275. Sungkur, R. K., Neermul, V., & Tauckoor, V. (2016). Exploring the educational potential of QR codes. Proceedings from ICACCE: International Conference on Advances in Computing and Communication Engineering. Durhan, South Africa: IEEE. Torres-Jimenez, E., Rus-Casas, C., Dorado, R., & Jimenez-Torres, M. (2018). Experiences using QR codes for improving the teaching-learning process in industrial engineering subjects. IEEE Revista Iberoamericana De Tecnologias Del Aprendizaje, 13(2), 56-62. Youan, X., Chao, Y., & Chunling, L. (2011). A new method of QR code accumulation encoding in mobile education. Proceedings from CECNet: International Conference on Consumer Electronics, Communications and Networks. XianNing, China: IEEE. Author Information Dia Abualnadi Ahmed Al-Salaymeh The University of Jordan Amman, 11942, Jordan The University of Jordan Amman, 11942, Jordan Feda’ Yousef The University of Jordan Amman, 11942, Jordan Ghazi Al Sukkar The University of Jordan Amman, 11942, Jordan Mohammed Hawa The University of Jordan Amman, 11942, Jordan Contact E-mail: hawa@ju.edu.jo 122 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 123-127 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education The Opinions of Classroom Teachers about Robotics Applications Sibel ACISLI Artvin Çoruh University Abstract: In this study, it was aimed to determine views of classroom teachers about robotic applications. This study was carried out with 48 classroom teachers during the 2017-2018 educational year. In the study, the “Robotics Pre-Test”, which was developed by Riberio (2006) and translated into Turkish by Koç Şenol (2012), as well as "Robotics Satisfaction Test", which was developed by Silva (2008) and Gibbon (2007) and translated into Turkish by Koç Şenol (2012), and “Personal Information form" and a semi-structured interview form developed by the researcher after reviewing the relevant literature were used to collect the data. In the analysis of the data obtained, descriptive statistics (frequency and percentage distribution) were used to evaluate Robotics PreTest and Robotics Satisfaction Test; inductive content analysis was used to analyze the interview data. According to the findings of this study, knowledge level and opinions of teachers in regard with robotics and how they see robotics as a method in education were determined. At end of the study, it was eventually found that teachers have very positive thoughts about robotics. Keywords: Classroom teachers, Robotics Introduction When the change in the field of technology and the evolution it brought to our lives in every aspect is considered, it can be said that there must be some changes related to the teaching profession especially when the technology is integrated into education such as the use of robots in classroom environments (Yaşaroğlu, 2018). According to Akkoyunlu (1998), teachers of the future should be raised as individuals who understand the importance of technology, use the technology effectively and productively to reach the information or produce new information as well as use and share this information through communication media, communicate effectively with students, adapt to changing learning environments and can solve the problems faced during learning process (Silik, 2016). According to Korkmaz, Altun, Usta, and Özkaya, (2014), with the development of information and communication technologies in today‟s world, not only computers but also robot applications have been used frequently in education (Yolcu and Demirer, 2017). These robotic applications teach individuals, algorithmic thinking, collaborative work, creativity and problem-solving, as well as scientific method, programming logic, and engineering design processes (Zengin, 2016). In this context, besides many educational technologies, robotics kits which can be developed and programmed by the students that can be easily utilized also have been used often in education (Yolcu and Demirer, 2017). According to Burket et al., (2008), one of the purposes of using robots in education is to increase students‟ interest in technology, computer, and engineering fields, indeed, robots help students to increase their interest in these areas and to help them select engineering careers (Üçgül, 2013). The children talk, make, and question to make robots in collaboration, and realize these ideas to express themselves in an artistic way (Temizkan, 2014). According to Doppelt and Armon (1999), the education system should give students the opportunity to improve their abilities and their sense of curiosity. The use of Lego in the teaching environment allows students to participate actively (Özdoğru, 2013). Lego Mindstorms projects and practices offer children the opportunity to question the thinking of the other through social interaction and to reflect their own prejudices and theories. Thus, at each stage, children reconstruct their ideas and conceptual understandings they developed in the previous stage (Temizkan, 2014). In this context, the role of the teacher is to support students‟ own discoveries, ideas, and projects. Students studying in the learning environment created with the Lego Mindstorms NXT 2.0 robot kits are given a real-life problem and have - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey created their own solution processes by trial and error. As a result, they have realized the stages of thinking about the problems, analyzing, formulating the results, accessing information, and searching for answers (Özdoğru, 2013). Lego is a powerful material that is used to make students willing to learn, entertain them while learning, and draw their attention to the subject learned. Increasing the success of the students will provide motivation to teachers towards the course they are lecturing (Sungur Gül and Marulcu, 2014). In this regard, in this study, it is aimed to determine the opinions of teachers about the educational use of robots. Method This research aims to reveal the opinions of the class teachers about the robotics. The study was carried out in the form of a single group pretest-posttest experimental design. The study group consisted of 48 classroom teachers. The application lasted 40 hours in 2 stages. During the practice, teachers were given separate trainings by groups of 24. In the first stage, the Lego® Mindstorms Education EV3 Set was introduced to teachers. In the second stage of the application, robotic programming-related activities were made. The set used in the training consists of a total of 541 pieces including 1 brain, 3 motors as 2 large and 1 medium, 2 touch sensors, 1 color sensor, 1 ultrasonic sensor, and 1 gyro sensor. There are 4 inputs for sensors and 4 inputs for motors on the brain. When connecting motors to ports A, B, C, and D, sensors are installed on ports 1, 2, 3, and 4. During the programming places where the sensors and motors are installed should be paid attention. Data Collection Tools In the research, as data collection tools, “Robotic Pre-Questionnaire” that was developed by Riberio (2006) and adapted to Turkish by Koç Şenol (2012), and “Robotic Satisfaction Test” that was developed by Silva (2008) and Gibbon (2007) and adapted to Turkish by Koç Şenol (2012) were used, moreover, semi-structured interview forms were used to determine classroom teachers opinions and suggestions about robotic supported implementations. Findings The research was carried out with 48 classroom teachers working in primary schools during the 2017-2018 academic year. To determine the opinions of the teachers about robotic-assisted applications “Robotics PreSurvey” -before the application and “Robotics Satisfaction Survey” -after the application, as well as semistructured interview form to determine the opinions and suggestions of the teachers were used. The answers of the teachers who participated in the research to “Robotics Pre-Survey” and “Robotics Satisfaction Survey” are presented in the tables below. Table 1. Frequency and percentage distributions of Robotic Pre-Questionnaire Question 1 and Question 2 Yes No f % f % Have you ever used Lego parts? 14 29,16 34 70,84 Do you have any information about Lego Mindstorms Robotic System? 8 16,66 40 83,34 As seen in Table 1, for the question, “Have you ever used Lego parts?, 29,16% of classroom teachers who participated to this research replied as “Yes” while 70,84% of them replied as “No”. Moreover, 16,66% of classroom teachers who participated to this research stated that they had information about Lego Mindstorms Robotic System while 83,34% of them stated that they did not know about this system. 124 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 2. Frequency and percentage distributions of robotic pre-questionnaire and robotic satisfaction questionnaire question 3 Undecided Difficult Post Post Pre test Pre test test test f % f % f % f % What do you think about use of Legos in the activities that you did/ 21 43,75 12 25 you will do? Easy Pre test Post test f % f % 5 10,41 2 4,16 22 45,83 34 70,83 As seen in Table 2, for the question, “What do you think about use of Legos in the activities that you did/ you will do?”, in pre-test, 10,41% of classroom teachers who participated to this research replied as undecided for use of Legos in the activities that would be done, 45,83% of them replied as easy for use of Legos and 43,75% replied as difficult for use of Legos; on the other hand, in post-test, 25% of classroom teachers replied as difficult, 4,16% of them replied as undecided while 70,83% of them replied as easy. Additionally, for the question, “What is you satisfaction level for the activities you did?”, 100% of classroom teachers replied as satisfied. Table 3. Frequency and percentage distributions of Robotic Pre-Questionnaire Question 4 Partially Yes No f Do you use technology effectively in your lessons? 14 % f % f % 29,16 21 43,75 13 27,08 As shown in Table 3, 29.16% of the teachers answered the question “Do you use technology effectively in your lessons?” as „yes‟, while 43.75% answered „no‟ and 27.08% responded „partially‟. In addition, almost all of the teachers who used technology in their classes stated that they used computers and smart boards to watch videos. To the question “For what reasons do you use technology in your courses?”, the teachers stated they use these technologies mostly to attract attention to the subject in lessons, to provide more permanent learning, to repeat the subject, and to make the lessons more enjoyable. Moreover, to determine the opinions and suggestions of the teachers about the robotic-assisted applications, all of the teachers who were asked in the posttest the question of “Does using robotics affect the professional development of the teacher?” responded as it would affect positively, and some of these answers are as follows: T-1: “It will affect positively. However, factors such as curriculum density, concern for catching up with the subjects, lack of sets, etc. will adversely affect the process. And as a primary school teacher, is it possible to be provided the appropriate environment in the school so that I can give this training? (I think no)” T-2: “Affects positively. The technology of the new era is based on robots.” T-3: “[It would] affect, it can gain a lot to themselves in terms of programming.” T-4: “[It would] affect, it encourages to think more and be creative.” T-5: “Fun and lasting.” T-6: “[It would] affect, because, the teacher would follow the technology of the age and does not fall behind. [This would] increases the success of the course. As the course will be fun, the lesson and the teacher becomes more popular.” T-7: “It definitely affects, it would make the teacher a more qualified and respected person.” T-8: “Of course [it would] affect, following the technology, to be updated, is perfect in terms of polishing our creativity that is blinded :)” T-9: “[It would] affect, lessons would become more attractive.” T-10: “Absolutely [it would] affect, I am sure that it will attract students‟ attention, entertain them, and increase their motivation among the classical teaching methods.” Some of the teachers‟ answers to the question “What kind of advantages using robotics in your lessons provide to you?” is as follows: 125 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey T-1: “Problem-solving and creative thinking skills are the most challenging areas to me. This will be an indispensable blessing for children with interest and curiosity.” T-2: “It provides active participation of students in the lessons. A positive attitude [behavior] is shown to the lessons.” T-3: “It provides the environment to enable students to use different areas, intelligence, and creativity rather than lecturing from the blackboard.” T-4: “It will enable students to come to my lesson more willingly, and let me and them leave the classroom with the perception “I learned”.” T-5: “Our lessons would become more fun and useful.” T-6: “It provides fun and permanent learning. Students are not limited and their creativity develops.” T-7: “Mobility, excitement, willingness to learn, wonder, etc. increase...” All teachers who were asked the question “Would you recommend using robotics to your colleagues?” in the posttest answered as “I would recommend”, and some of the answers are given below: T-1: “Of course I would, the more teachers learn it, the more we benefit students.” T-2: “I would because the teachers should always improve themselves.” T-3: “Yes, it‟s nice to produce ...” T-4: “Absolutely I would recommend it because a teacher who has a good command of the subject is respected by both the students and the society.” T-5: “I would, [it is] fun, improving, and impressive ...” T-6: “I would recommend. But just to those who are really interested and enthusiastic about it.” T-7: “Yes I would, I think it will provide a professional advantage.” T-8: “Yes I would because it is necessary to involve technology in our age.” T-9: “Definitely yes, because I am sure that these activities will change the attitudes and behaviors of the students towards their teachers.” All teachers who were asked “Would you follow the updates about the robotics after start using it?” in the posttest stated that they would follow. In addition, almost all the teachers who were asked “Do you consider using robotics in your lessons in the future?” responded that they would consider it. Discussion and Conclusions Within the scope of the study, the opinions of the class teachers about robotics were examined. 29.16% of the class teachers participating in the study answered the question “Have you ever used Lego parts before?” as „yes‟, while 70.84% responded „no‟. In addition, 83.34% of the teachers stated that they do not have any information about the Lego Mindstorms Robotics System and 16.66% stated that they do have information about it. In the pretest, 10.41% of the teachers stated that they were hesitant to use of Lego in their activities, 45.83% said it will be easy to use them, as well as 43.75% said they will have difficulty to do it so. Nonethelessö in the posttest, 25% claimed to have difficulty, 4.16% were hesitant about it, and 70.83% stated that they were easy to use. In this context, it is determined that those who think that they will have difficulties before the activity stated that they were easy to practice after the application. Among the participant teachers, 29.16% of them responded positively to the question “Do you use technology effectively in the courses?”, while 43.75% answered negatively and 27.08% claimed they use it partially. Almost all of the teachers who used technology in their classes stated that they used computers and smart boards to watch videos. Teachers also stated that they mostly use these technologies to draw attention to the subject in lessons, to make learning more permanent, to make revisions, and to make lessons more fun. In the study, all of the teachers stated that using robotics would affect the professional development of the teacher positively and claimed that they would recommend the robotics to their colleagues and they would follow the innovations about it. References Koç Şenol, A. (2012). Science and technology laboratory applications supported by robotic: ROBOLAB. Master Thesis, Erciyes University, Graduate School of Education Sciences. Korkmaz, O., Altun, H., Usta, E. & Ozkaya, A. (2014). The effect of activities in robotic applications on students‟ perception on the nature of science and students‟ metaphors related to the concept of robot. International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, 5(2), 44-57. 126 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Özdoğru, E. (2013). The Effect of Lego Programme Based Science and Technology Education on the Students‟ Academic Achievement, Science Process Skills and Their Attitudes Toward Science and Technology Course for Physical Facts Learning Field. Master's Thesis, Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir. Silik, Y. (2016). Effect of Educational Robotics Applications on Problem Solving Skills of Science Teacher Candidates. Master's Thesis, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon. Sungur Gül, K. & Marulcu, İ. (2014). Yöntem Olarak Mühendislik-Dizayna ve Ders Materyali Olarak Legolara Öğretmen ile Öğretmen Adaylarının Bakış Açılarının İncelenmesi. Electronic Turkish Studies, 9(2). Temizkan, M. (2014). Eğitimde yenilikçi yaklaşımlar Robot uygulamaları. Yüksek Lisans), Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara. Üçgül, M. (2013). History and Educational Potential of LEGO Mindstorms NXT, Mersin University Journal of the Faculty of Education, Vol. 9, Issue 2, August 2013, pp.127-137. Yaşaroğlu, C. Öğretmenlik Mesleğinin Geleceği Üzerine Bir Öngörü Denemesi. Akademik Matbuat, 2(1), 1629. Yolcu, V. & Demirer, V. (2017). A review on the studies about the use of robotic technologies in education. SDU International Journal of Educational Studies, 4(2), 127-139. Zengin, M. (2016). İlkokul, ortaokul ve lise öğrencilerin disiplinlerarası eğitim & öğretiminde robotik sistemlerinin kullanımına yönelik görüşleri. Üstün Yetenekliler Eğitimi ve Araştırmaları Dergisi (UYAD), 4(2). Author Information Sibel Acisli Artvin Çoruh Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi, Temel Eğitim Bölümü, Sınıf Eğitimi Ana Bilim Dalı, Artvin / Turkey Contact E mail: sacisli@ artvin.edu.tr 127 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 128-133 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Micro:Bit Immplementation in ICT Education Melita MILIĆ Profil Klett D.o.o. Dario KUKULJAN University of Jurja Dobrile Elena KRELJA KURELOVIĆ Polytechnic of Rijeka Abstract: Our civilization has moved deep into the computer society. Unlike the economy, schools very slow carry out the necessary transformations. The application of different technologies in the educational process, on the one hand, accelerates the teaching process while on the other hand it makes it more interesting and acceptable to participants. Therefore, various initiatives have been launched aiming at a faster transformation of the school system. With an ubiquitous trend of accent on the STEM area, the logical way of solving problems is the foundation of development. Programming logic is recognized as a tool that will be the basis for any business. In search of affordable solutions, in order to cover as many of today's pupils as possible, Micro:bit are selected. Micro:bit can also be used to enhance computational thinking, learning, and problem-solving across disciplines. More than 30 countries around the world began to use Micro:bits in their education systems. In Croatia, this was accomplished through various projects involving almost all school institutions and spreading across libraries across the country. The aim of this paper is to show that projects with a high impact on education can be realized with a small amount of funds. We will show some of the started projects, the correlation they have created among subjects in school and generations of children. The impact that a Micro:bit has on education in Croatia is indisputable and therefore we will try to give examples of good practices described in the projects for future use of this technology in teaching. Keywords: Micro:bit, STEAM education, School, Programming Introduction to Micro:Bit The Micro Bit (also referred to as BBC Micro Bit, stylized as Micro:bit) is an open source hardware ARM-based embedded system designed by the BBC for use in computer education in the UK in 2015. The device is described as half the size of a credit card and has an ARM Cortex-M0 processor, accelerometer, magnetometer and temperature sensor, Bluetooth and USB connectivity, a display consisting of 25 LEDs (5x5 matrix), two programmable buttons, and can be powered by either USB or an external battery pack. The device inputs and outputs are through five ring connectors that form part of a larger 23-pin edge connector (Figure 1.). - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Figure 1. Hardware description of Micro:Bit (Source: https://microbit.org/hr/guide/features/) Micro:bit can be coded in any web browser with Blocks, Javascript, Pyton, Scratch ect. respectively no specialized software installation is required on any OS platform. It is not necessary to own the microcontroller itself, since the web editor in which it is programmed has a Micro:bit, so it can be tested any time whether the script is written or not. Different microbial sensors allow children and teachers to spread their imagination and use them in many different ways. Using Micro:bits makes it very easy for every child to learn the basics of coding very quickly, so they can quickly create their own, simple games, develop problem solving skills, and become interested in STEM. Micro:Bit Usage Micro:Bit Usage Worldwide Today, Micro:bit is represented in nearly 30 countries of the world, including Canada, Norway, Singapore, China, Swedish, USA, etc. The first massive use of Micro:bit in schools was in UK, two years ago. It was difficult to assume that two years later it would be used by nearly a million students. Such a growth of users, implies a bigger need for support for both teachers and students. “A Discovery Research report for BBC Learning showed genuine behavioural change: before using Micro:bit 23% of girls said they would definitely take up computer science as an option, after using the Micro:bit for the first time that number increased up to 39%. Elsewhere, 88% of all respondents – boys and girls – said the Micro:bit made coding seem less difficult than they previously believed.” (Martin, 2016). Teachers covered by this change may vary significantly according to age and education as well as the way of use of technology. In the United Kingdom, everyone has a unique need to quickly adapt to the new curriculum. According to Sentance (2017.), some schools do not use Micro:bit only in the STEM field, but in other subjects such as textiles and art. In textiles the Micro:bit was programmed to light up and then sewed into clothes. They need fast and comprehensive support. It is estimate that Micro:bit users will create satisfying apps in less than 50 lines, according to Ball (2016). Different movements for support are being initiated in this period. Some of them are: Fab Lab, Croatian Manufacturers, Techshop, Maker Schola, Digitalverkstan … Micro:Bit Usage in Croatia Micro:Bit Competition| Profil Klett One of the projects that had the most significant impact is the project of the company Profil Klett.The aim of the competition was to demonstrate how to apply ICT in teaching and at the same time to develop the social and ecological awareness of students as well as actively encourage students to apply Micro:bit in irrigation sets and their integration into the teaching of different subjects and grades. The main goal of the project is to achieve cooperation between classroom and subject teaching, teamwork, develop a sense of responsibility in the proper use of equipment, develop creativity in the use of computer in teaching, develop students' ability to observe and measure, develop a positive and conscientious attitude toward work and ecological awareness. 129 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey A plant watering set that consisted of a soil moisture measuring sensor and water pumps was donated to schools. The set was planted alongside the plant. Also, as a support for the development of ideas, a digital manual for teachers was developed. "Examples of microbial integration in teaching with different interpersonal contents - exercises and tasks with Python on Micro:bit". The framework of activities that most students did can be represented as follows: 1. To set hypotheses of research work 2. Established stages of research work 3. Picking seedlings 4. Learning about the germination process and planting conditions 5. Performing an experimental part of the research work a. Programming Micro:bit i. Generating code ii. Setting the moisture sensor iii. Adjusting the amount and speed of water flow b. Manual watering of seedlings 6. Data collection a. Height of the plant b. Number of flowers / leaves c. Amount of water used d. Amount of electricity consumed e. The amount of light received f. Temperature g. Plant mass 7. Data processing 8. Dissemination of results The main research question was: Which plant will grow better? The schools that participated in the competition had experiments with different hypotheses: H1: The Plant I manually pump. H2: The Plant that has automatic irrigation with a Micro:bit. Some schools conducted additional experiments with amount of (artificial) light and the release of different types of music. The research was mostly attended by 3rd and 4th grade or 5th and 6th grade students. They were lead by teachers of class teaching, biology and CS. Research work was largely organized so that lower grade students were given the task of making pots, creating visual arts and literary works and creating posters and comics. Senior class students programmed Micro:bit, adjusting sensors, manually pumping plants, and taking care of the accuracy of the circuit. Among the seedlings used in the project tomatoes, peas and wheat dominated, but we also encountered a wide range of plants used in schools. Vegetables including radish, spinach, young onions, tomatoes, wheat, barley, etc. Some used zumbulas and African purples, lemons, cucumbers, cherries, cherries, cocoa. Depending on the seedlings used, germination times were different, but most schools were careful to expose the seedlings to enough light. The experimental part consisted of for steps:  planting two plants (usually) of the same type  connecting the plant with the Micro:bit (water pump, water tank, irrigation hose, soil moisture sensor etc.).  Programming Micro:bit for optimum watering of the plant (amount of water, frequency of watering depending on sensor sensitivity)  Recording results and planting seedlings manually. During the project in some schools the water pump failed. They decide to continue with manual watering of the plants. 130 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Data collection was periodic. The most commonly collected data was measuring the difference in height of the irrigation seedlings compared to manual irrigation. Schools that chose crops with multiple seeds, eg wheat yields, have results which generally show manual irrigation as better because all plants had the same amount of water. Unique distribution and growth of all plants was evident, as opposed to automatic irrigation, where plant growth was in the narrow circle around the pump, and the rest of the grain grew later. It was obvious even when it later grew. Schools that have decided on individual seedlings eg tomato, show better results with automatic irrigation compared to manual. Some schools still - depending on the chosen plant - counted the leaves on the plants, measured temperature and room lighting, soil moisture, the amount of electricity and water used, etc. Results The progress of using Micro:bit in Croatia started by IRIM a year ago. IRIM is a privately-funded Croatian nonprofit organization. All educational institutions are called to respond to the equipment of their school with BBC Micro:bit. In that period, over of 20,000 Micro:bit are deployed in over 1,000 elementary schools and secondary schools, universities and libraries. All universities joined and acquired Micro:bit well as the vast majority of elementary schools (Figure 2). Figure 2. Involved schools in BBC micro:bit (Source: http://croatianmakers.hr/hr/ustanove-stem-revolucije/ ) The teacher's response to this, suggests that teachers are interested in projects. According to Bakić (2017), a majority of teachers are interested in taking part in more advanced workshops with Micro:bit (Figure 3). Figure 3. The teachers’ interest in the application of Micro:bit in different areas It is noted that more than 78% of teachers are very interested, while only 1.5% are not interested in applying Micro:bit in teaching of other topics. For teachers, Micro:bit has proven to be an excellent motivational tool. In the project Profil Klett there were 200 sets available in the schools. 148 schools (74%) have completed the task with more than 450 teachers and 5,000 students (Figure 4.). 131 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Figure 4. Schools in the Profil Klett project After the first workshops with teachers and two months of using Micro:bit in classrooms, it can be said that the benefits are multiple. Students are advancing many competencies, including digital literacy and creativity. Data processing was most often done by manually filling the tables, and later the data was transferred to a digital format. The output project at most schools is a video consisting of images obtained during the implementation of the project, while some schools have also made a presentation and provided a written description of the project and images. PowerPoint (Figure 5.) proved to be the dominant type of materials generated by students during the project (67%) while the least of the schools used the web site as a dissemination tool (7%). Figure 5. Digitals type of obtained materials If we look at how many different types of material a school has used, we note that most of the schools (26%) used only PowerPoint for project presentation, while 3 or more types of materials used 17% of schools (Figure 6.). Figure 6. Digitals type of obtained material – more type of materials Conclusion Benefits of using Micro:bit are unquestionable. With use of Micro:bit, students enhance their computational thinking, deeper learning, problem-solving and collaboration skills. Concurrently, they develop an interest in 132 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey coding and ICT education because Micro:bit makes coding easier and interesting. A large number of registered schools and a response rate of 74% indicate that teachers and students are interested in implementing projects with Micro:bit. From this example of a successful project it is evident that some improvements need to be implemented in the future: A well-designed and elaborated Project; Providing specific technical assistance; Providing support to teachers; Project monitoring at all stages; Repository of supporting documents and phases. When launching future projects, it is advised to create unique inputs as well as project tracking materials. Given that most schools continue to use only one type of dissemination, it is recommended to set up and follow many different forms of dissemination in future projects. According to Carlborg, (2017.) it is beneficial to always provide same scope of autonomy in exercises. Since most of the schools used only PPT or only one tool for result tracking, it would be of benefit to assign more assessment tools. References Bakić, Z., (2017), Results of micro usage: bits in class and preliminary financial report. Retrieved from https://eclectica.hr/2017/06/07/rezultati-koristenja-microbitova-u-nastavi-i-preliminarni-financijskiizvjestaj/ Ball, T., Protzenko, J., Bishop, J., Moskal, M., Halleux, J., Braun, M., Hodges, S., Riley, C., Microsoft Touch Develop and the BBC micro:bit. 38th IEEE. Carlborg, N., Tyren, M., (2017). Introducing micro:bit in Swedish primary schools. (Master s thesis). Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg. Martin, A., (2016), Micro:bit Educational Foundation launches to push micro:bit into Europe “and beyond”. Retrieved from http://www.alphr.com/bbc/1004557/microbit-educational-foundation-launches-topush-microbit-into-europe-and-beyond Sentance, S., Waite, J., Hodges, S., MacLeod, E., & Yeomans, L. (2017). Creating Cool Stuff. SIGCSE ’17. https://microbit.org/hr/guide/features/, (accessed 15. 9. 2018.) https://www.profil-klett.hr/prijavljene-skole, (accessed 15. 9. 2018.) http://croatianmakers.hr/hr/ustanove-stem-revolucije/, (accessed 15. 9. 2018.) Melita Milić Profil Klett d.o.o. Hektorovićeva 2, Zagreb, Croatia Contact E-mail: melita.milic@profil-klett.hr Author Information Dario Kukuljan University of Jurja Dobrile Zagrebačka 30, Pula, Croatia Elena Krelja Kurelović Polytechnic of Rijeka Trpimirova 2/V, Rijeka, Croatia 133 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 134-141 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education The Impact of Secondary School Teachers’ Training Program on the Professional Development of In-Service Biology Teachers Eman SHAABAN Lebanese University Imane ABOU ALI Lebanese University Abstract: Teachers’ professional development is essential to achieve quality teaching, through gaining different classroom management techniques, different teaching strategies to cater for different students’ levels and needs, and an in-depth updated subject knowledge. In order to be a permanent teacher at the Lebanese secondary public schools, teachers must follow a specific training program at the Lebanese University, Faculty of Education. The aim of this research is to investigate the impact of the training program, given at the Lebanese university for in-service secondary biology teachers, on their professional development. The study employed descriptive quantitative methodology to answer the research question. A sample of 50 biology secondary teachers filled a questionnaire related to their perceptions about professional development at the beginning of the training and filled the same questionnaire after completing four courses: teaching biology I and II, practicum I and II. The data was analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). The results showed a significant relation between attending the training program and the teachers’ professional development, specifically in the axis related to their perceptions of themselves as science teachers. Based on this study continuous professional training for in-service teachers is highly recommended. Keywords: Training program, Professional development, Secondary biology teachers’ perceptions Introduction Teachers are the most significant contributors to raising educational standards. They are the key implementers of new programs and practice that impact on students’ learning. Teachers’ qualities, experience, certification and education have great influence on students’ achievements (Bird, 2017). Teachers are considered the most influential factor in educational reform intended to promote students’ learning (Dufee & Aikenhead, 1992). Thus, in order to improve the efficiency and quality of teaching, teachers should be highly skilled and largely professional in a resourceful and motivated way. Teacher Training and Professional Development Nowadays, the task of a teacher is evidently more than just planning and executing a lesson plan. Teachers are expected to tune into how students think and challenge them to learn, besides being role models encouraging them to integrate human values. In this context a study has shown that teacher’ effects are dominant factors affecting student academic performance (Sanders, Wright & Horn, 1997). Teaching is a continuous evolving career that requires regular follow up, reevaluations, reflections and eventually continuous development. Consequently, teachers’ training is of great significance because teachers’ qualities determine the quality of education delivery and hence students’ outcomes. The main objective of pre-service teachers’ training programs is to develop competent, professional teachers who effectively contribute to student learning (Tardif, 2001). Moreover, in-service training program is the process of continuously updating teacher’s knowledge, skills and interests in chosen field (Nakpodia, 2008). The benefits of in-service training of teachers is to guide them to - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey obtain academic and professional qualifications in order to improve their positions in the school system, and to help them acquire more conceptual and technical knowledge, skills and competencies in their teaching subjects and in pedagogy in order to improve their efficiency in the classroom. Thus, teachers’ training enables them to be adequately equipped to meet up with the challenges of the 21st century (Asiyai, 2016). In-service training is a professional development (PD) methodology that involves personal and classroom-based coaching within a structured program, intended to provide teachers with new skills and technical feedback about better teaching practices (Harvey, 1999). Moreover, professional development program in education is a wide range of specialized training or professional learning purposefully designed to help teachers improve their professional knowledge (Hidden curriculum, 2014). Professional development program is supposed to be a continuous, focused, daily learning for teachers individually and collectively (Sodan, 2017). Thus, professional development training programs enhance teachers’ knowledge, skills, and motivation. Teacher training is one form of continuous professional development. Perrenoud (2001) developed ten core competencies for professional development, according to him the trainee teacher should: 1. Organize and facilitate learning situations. 2. Manage the progress of learning. 3. Design and develop differentiating features. 4. Involve students in their learning and their work. 5. Work in team. 6. Participate in the school management. 7. Inform and involve parents. 8. Use of new technologies. 9. Face the duties and ethical dilemmas of the profession. 10. Manage his own training. Similarly, Danielson (2013) has developed a framework for evaluating teachers’ PD, where he identified the following domains: Planning and Preparation; Classroom Environment; Instruction; Professional Responsibilities: Reflecting on teaching; maintaining accurate record; participating in the professional community; growing and developing professionally. The idea that PD can foster improvements in teaching is widely accepted, however, professional development for in-service teachers is fragmented, consisting primarily of short workshops that are neither connected to each other nor to the teacher’s classroom work. Professional Development of Science Teachers Becoming a professional science teacher is a continuous process that stretches from pre-service experiences in undergraduate years till the end of a professional career. Science has a rapidly changing knowledge base and societal issues, and teachers will need ongoing opportunities to build their understanding and abilities. Science teachers require the opportunity to study and engage in research on science teaching and learning, and to share with colleagues what they have learned (NRC, 1996). Science education reforms called on teachers to adopt inquiry as a major strategy of their teaching. The U.S. reform documents of the American association for the advancement of science (AAAS, 1993) stated that inquiry teaching strategy should be considered as a major strategy for teaching science, which teachers must know how to conduct in the classrooms (AAAS, 1993; NRC, 1996). However, inquiry-based teaching is a complex and sophisticated way of teaching that requires the teacher to have an adequate understanding of the method (Crawford, 2007). Teachers of science build skills gradually, starting in their undergraduate years, where they engage in science and gain some experience in teaching. They then experience the realities during their first years in the classroom, from work with other teachers, take advantage of professional development offerings, and learn from their own efforts and those of their colleagues. The National Science Educational Standards identified four standards for professional development of science teachers: Professional development for teachers of science requires learning essential science content through the perspectives and methods of inquiry; Professional development for teachers of science requires integrating knowledge of science, learning, pedagogy, and students; it also requires applying that knowledge to science teaching; Professional development for teachers of science requires building understanding and ability for lifelong learning; Professional development programs for teachers of science must be coherent and integrated (NRC, 1996). 135 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey To be a qualified, competent, and effective science teacher, one should understand the nature of science, implement new cooperative, collaborative and inquiry-based teaching methods, understand the teacher’s role, learn and practice planning and organization, build personal relations, and be enthusiastic when teaching science (TroWbridge & Bybee, 1990). Training and professional development of Lebanese Secondary Teachers The Lebanese government is involved in science teacher preparation and training through the Lebanese University, the Center for Educational Research and Development (CERD), and the Ministry of Education and Higher Education. Lebanese public school teachers are trained in two institutions: The Faculty of education of the Lebanese University and CERD. Since the academic year 2009-2010 the Faculty of education implemented the LMD program (License – Master – Doctorate) offering a Bachelor degree in Education and Teaching Diplomas in different specialized majors, as well as Professional and Research Master Degrees. In addition, it offers the Certificat d’Aptitude Pédagogique à l’Enseignement Secondaire (CAPES) (Certificate of Qualification in Education for Secondary School Teaching) that is required for employment in public secondary schools. To be admitted to the CAPES program, students are required to hold a 3 or 4-year degree in a subject area taught at the secondary school level such as biology, chemistry, or physics and to pass an entrance examination administered by the Council of Civil Service, a department of the Lebanese Government in charge of employment in the civil service. However, private school teachers need not be graduates of teacher preparation programs consequently, many private schools employ beginner teachers of biology, chemistry, or physics to teach science at all levels, resulting in an over-emphasis on disseminating information (because teachers tend to teach the same way they were taught). According to BouJaoude (2000) the general goals of the education programs offered at the Faculty of Education include providing prospective teachers with theoretical and practical information needed for good teaching and helping them to develop skills necessary to live and work with others. Analysis of the course descriptions, the syllabi, and the interviews conducted with faculty members shows that almost all methods instructors emphasize the nature of science, constructivist ideas, the Lebanese Science Curriculum, and a variety of teaching and laboratory approaches to science teaching. In addition, in Lebanon, science teacher education programs are offered by many private universities and colleges such as American University of Beirut (AUB), Haigazian University, Lebanese American University (LAU), Notre Dame University, University of Saint Joseph (USJ) and many others. In all universities prospective teachers are required to have an undergraduate degree in a science major or a number of science courses depending upon the classes they intend to teach. Furthermore, they have to complete general pedagogy courses, science methods courses, and perform field work. Wehbe (1984) found that teacher preparation at Lebanese colleges, universities, and specialized institutes emphasizes technical and theoretical issues and neglects moral and ethical components of the teaching-learning process. Murr (1983), on the other hand, found that the major difference between the elementary and intermediate teacher education programs implemented by CERD is that elementary teachers are prepared as classroom teachers while those at the intermediate level are prepared as specialized subject matter teachers (secondary programs were not examined). Haddad (1983) described the goals and structures of the teaching diplomas in elementary and secondary (including intermediate) education offered at the American University of Beirut. According to Haddad, teachers working toward a Teaching Diploma in elementary or secondary education followed a program consisting of four components: pre-requisite subject matter courses, general pedagogy courses, methods courses, and field work. On the other hand, the Training and Development Office of CERD was in charge of establishing the continuous training project (CTP) to train public school teachers on new curricula implemented in 1997. According to Zeitoun (2014) the teachers and trainers who participated in the new continuous professional development program in Lebanon (CTP) show growth in professionalism. Nowadays, CERD offers yearly training workshops for in-service teachers at all levels except university education. Teachers are trained during the academic year and within their working hours for 5 to 7 days of training per academic year, teachers can register for the courses by choosing from the regional training plans that are issued to institutions, schools and high schools annually. The training courses are conducted in the training centers distributed in different regions in Lebanon (CERD, 1995). 136 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey To be a tenured secondary teacher in public schools, in-service teachers should pass the civic service exam and then should attend and pass a training program at the Faculty of Education of the Lebanese University. Further to completing the program and passing all courses they earn a CAPES degree. In 2017, more than 2,000 inservice secondary teachers from all over Lebanon were admitted to the Faculty of Education to pursue a training program in order to be tenured as public school teachers. A special training program was prepared for in-service biology secondary teachers based on science education research which focused on the integration of knowledge, skills and attitudes to develop a better understanding of scientific concepts (Zeidan & Jayosi, 2015) in order to be able to deliver high-quality teaching. As instructors at the Faculty of Education, we taught the following core courses: Teaching Life Sciences I and II and Practicum I and II for in-service biology secondary teachers. The main objectives of these courses are allowing Lebanese biology secondary teachers to be familiar with the Lebanese curriculum, to understand the nature of science and the basic concepts of Science Education and Didactics of Biology. These courses allow teachers to acquire new teaching and assessment methods and to keep them up to date with new trends in teaching biology. In addition to acquiring the components of the teaching learning process, preparing lesson plans based on new teaching methodologies and techniques, practice teaching in cooperative schools and self-reflection to increase their teaching skills. Purpose of the study The aim of this research is to investigate the impact of the training program implemented at the Lebanese University for in-service contractual secondary biology teachers on their professional development. The study will answer the following research question: What is the impact of in-service teacher training program for biology secondary teachers on their professional development? Method This study is descriptive analytic implementing the quantitative method. It aims to show the effect of the training program on in-service teachers’ professional development. For this purpose the same questionnaire was administered to in-service contractual secondary biology teachers before and after completing the training program at the Lebanese University, Faculty of Education to earn their CAPES degree in order to be tenured teachers in secondary public schools. Descriptive and inferential analysis using SPSS program was implemented to analyze the data collected. Participants A convenient sample of 50 in-service teachers filled completely the pre and post questionnaire. All participants completed the core courses in the training program related to teaching biology, namely Teaching Life Sciences I and II, in addition to the practicum courses. The main objective of these courses is to enhance their knowledge of science, their teaching skills and attitude. The majority of the teachers were females coming from different regions of Lebanon, and their teaching experience ranged from 1 to 20 years. Instrument Data was collected using a questionnaire that was adopted from (Trowbridge & Bybee, 1990). This selfevaluation questionnaire for teachers is composed of 25 items describing the various facets of science teaching. It provides insights concerning some characteristics of science teachers. It is divided into 5 categories: Knowledge of science, planning and organization, teaching methods, personal relations and enthusiasm, and each category is composed of 5 items. The questionnaire uses Likert scale to indicate how each item currently characterizes them as science teachers, it ranges from 1 to 5 points as follows: 5- Very characteristic of me. This is a real strength of my teaching. 4- Frequently characteristic of me. This is a good aspect of my science teaching. 3- Sometimes characteristic of me. I should evaluate this aspect of my science teaching. 2- Seldom characteristic of me. I should improve this aspect of my science teaching. 1- Never characteristic of me. I really need to improve this aspect of my science teaching. 137 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey The questionnaire was administered to the participants at the beginning of the training program, and at the end of the program that lasted 28 weeks to answer the research question: “What is the impact of in-service teacher training program for biology secondary teachers on their professional development? Results To answer our research question data collected from the pre and post questionnaire was analyzed using SPSS. The means of the pre and post questionnaire were computed and compared, table 1 shows the results of the paired T- test. Pair 1 Table 1. Paired T- test results of the pre and post questionnaire means Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Sig.(2-tailed) PreMean 3.7112 .25224 .03567 PostMean 4.6656 .33668 .04761 .000 The results show high significance, by which sig (2-tailed) is 0.000 which is less than 0.05 (p value). The mean has increased from 3.7112 (pre-mean) to 4.6656 (post-mean). The standard deviation in pre-mean (.25224) is less than that in the post-mean (.33668). Then, the pre and post means of the five studied categories of the questionnaire (Knowledge of science, planning, teaching methods, personal relations and enthusiasm) were computed and compared, figure 1 shows the compared means. Figure 1. Comparison between the pre and post means of the five categories of the questionnaire The comparison shows an increase in the post means of the five categories according to the following order: teaching method > planning and organization > personal relations > knowledge of science > enthusiasm. Moreover, the one tailed T test was performed, the results are shown in (Table 2). 138 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair 5 Table 2. Paired T test results of the pre and post questionnaire categories Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Sig.(2-tailed) pre knowledge of 3.8440 .39649 .05607 science Post knowledge of 4.6280 .28574 .04041 .000 science Pre planning 3.6160 .36554 .05169 Post planning 4.8200 1.41551 .20018 .000 Pre teaching 3.3440 .41608 .05884 methods Post Teaching 4.5680 .31131 .04403 .000 methods Pre relations 3.7320 .39094 .05529 Post relations 4.5960 .26951 .03811 .000 Pre enthusiasm 4.0200 .38386 .05429 Post enthusiasm 4.7160 .27132 .03837 .000 The results show high significance in all categories, by which sig (2-tailed) is 0.000 which is less than 0.05 (p value). Discussion and Conclusion The purpose of this research was to investigate the impact of the training program provided at the Lebanese university, faculty of Education, for in-service secondary biology teachers on their professional development. A questionnaire divided into five categories related to professional development was implemented before and after the training program. The results show that this program enhanced the in-service teachers’ knowledge of science, planning and organization, teaching methodologies, personal relations and enthusiasm. This finding can be justified by the fact that the core courses of the training program (Teaching Life Sciences I & II, Practicum I & II) implemented new cooperative, collaborative and inquiry-based teaching methodologies integrating technology in order to develop participants’ higher order thinking skills such as critical thinking and problem solving skills. These methods allowed in-service teachers to learn that teaching science should be consistent with the nature of scientific inquiry and that instruction should begin with questioning about nature, and continue by actively engaging the students, concentrating on the collection and use of evidence, and using the team approach. Thus, inquiry experiences should be emphasized for teachers to understand the natures of science (NOS) (Chiappetta, 2010). The results are consistent with the literature which emphasized that teachers’ professional development should be an ongoing process which includes activities and practices that lead to enhancing the teachers’ knowledge, skills and attitudes (NEPC, 2002). According to Abd-El-Khalick (2012) science teachers who understand and integrate NOS are able to utilize effective teaching approaches. The findings are in parallel with the study of Dani (2009) which focused on the necessity of teachers’ professional development as a condition for the development of “science as a way of knowing”. In addition, the implemented methods enhanced the communication skills and active listening of in-service teachers and allowed them to develop effective personal relations and increased their enthusiasm. Moreover, during the training program the in-service teachers practiced planning and organization by preparing, implementing and reflecting on adequate lesson plan. The effective professional development training programs can assist teachers in building effective inquiry strategy skills to be used in the classroom (Sodan, 2017).Thus the training program implemented in this study enhanced the in-service secondary biology teachers’ professional development. Recommendations Based on the results of the study in-service teachers’ continuous training is highly recommended in order to enhance their skills and keep them updated in relation to scientific knowledge and newly implemented teaching methods. Similarly, the results of the research of Ayoubi, El Takach, & Rawas (2017) recommend that inservice teachers should be involved in continuous training and professional development programs to keep them informed and up-to-date in both content and pedagogy. Moreover, it is recommended that training programs for in-service science teachers should implement inquiry based teaching methods facilitating cooperation and collaboration among teachers in order to plan, organize and implement adequate and effective lesson plans. 139 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey References Abd-El-Khalick, F. (2012). Nature of science in science education: Toward a coherent framework for synergistic research and development. In B. J. Fraser, K. Tobin, & C. McRobbie (Eds.), Second international handbook of science education (Vol. 2, pp. 1041–1060). The Netherlands: Springer. American Association for the Advancement of science (AAAS). (1993). Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/index.php Asiyai, R. (2016). Relational study of in-service training, teaching effectiveness and academic performance of students. Journal of Teaching and Education, 05 (02), 205-216. Ayoubi, Z., El Takach, S. & Rawas, M. (2017). Improving the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) among cycle 3 in-service chemistry teachers attending the training program at the faculty of education, Lebanese University. Journal of Education in Science, Environment and Health (JESEH), 3(2), 196212. DOI:10.21891/jeseh.326753 Bird, D. O. (2017). Relationship between teacher effectiveness and student achievement: an investigation on teacher quality. (PHD thesis, Ball State University, Muncif, Indiana). Retrieved from http://cardinalscholar.bsu.edu/bitstream/handle/123456789/200666/BirdD_20172_BODY.pdf?sequence=1 BouJaoude, S. (2000). Science teacher preparation in Lebanon: Reality and future directions (pp. 45-74). In S. Abell (Ed.), Science teacher education: An international perspective. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Capps, D. K., Crawford, B.A., & Constras, M. A. (2012). A review of empirical literature on inquiry professional development: Alignment with the best practices and a critique of the findings. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 23(3), 291-318. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s10972-012-92752 Center for Educational Research and Development (CERD). (1995). Retrieved from https://www.crdp.org/rids/Index.htm Chiapetta, E. L., & Koballa, T.R. Jr. (2010). Science instruction in the middle and secondary schools. 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Retrieved from https://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/school-reform-proposals-the-research-evidence National Research Council (NRC). (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Perrenoud, Ph. (2001). Dix nouvelles compétences pour un métier nouveau. Faculté de psychologie et des sciences de l’éducation Université : Genève Retrieved from http://www.unige.ch/fapse/SSE/teachers/perrenoud/php_main/php_2001/2001_04.ht Sanders W.L, Wright, S.P. and Horn S.P. (1997). Teacher and Classroom Context Effects on Student Achievement: Implications for teacher evaluation. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 1, 57-67. 140 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Sodan, A.O. (2017). Professional development of senior secondary school biology teachers on inquiry-based teaching method. PEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences, 3(3), 876-889. Tardif, M (2001). 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Author Information Eman Shaaban Imane Abou Ali Lebanese University, Faculty of Education Beirut / Lebanon Contact E-mail: eman_shaaban19@hotmail.com Lebanese University, Faculty of Education Beirut / Lebanon 141 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 142-152 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education The Role of Family Engagement in Students’ Science Learning in Qatari Schools Ziad SAID College of the North Atlantic Ahmad AL-AMADI Qatar University Abstract: A survey of 312 parents of grades 7-12 school students from 24 schools with a focus group meeting of 24 parents from 8 schools was conducted to explore the type and level of parent's involvement and support for their children science learing. The results reveal that Qatari school parents show little interaction with schools and teachers despite the facilities and programs offered by MEHE and schools. This low involvement is featured by: Low participation of parents in schools‟ meeting and engagement in school activities that doesn‟t exceed 20% of students‟ population, weak communication link between parents and science teachers‟ strategies of science teachers, low level of concern about students‟ future high education and careers. From nearly 1200 from grades 7-12 surveyed students, about 45% of students say that the role of their parents is the most influential factor in their career aspiration compared to about 24% of the influence of teachers. Parents show medium level trust in science teachers, they indicate little help and support for children in their science learning, such as solving problems and assistance in assignments. The results also indicate few periodical talks and conversations about science subjects and activities between parents and children, low counselor guidance is offered by schools on future careers and science programs enrollment at higher education institutes. Very few parents (1%) use the e-learning portal offered by Ministry of education for follow up of their children schooling despite several messages and calls for training by schools‟ administrations and the Ministry. Parents play important role in the decision of their children future high education and careers but few advise them to be scientist or have a technical –based career. Keywords: Science education, Parents‟ role, School visits, Careers Introduction Parent and family, involvement in education, in general, correlates with higher academic performance and school improvement. When schools, parents, families, and communities work together to support learning, students tend to earn higher grades, attend school more regularly, stay in school longer, and enroll in higher level programs (Henderson and Mapp, 2002, and Jeynes 2003). Dick and Rallis (1991) found that parents and teachers were perceived by high school and university students to be the top influences on career choice, especially for students (both boys and girls) choosing careers inengineering and science. Students‟ interest in taking more advanced science subjects or enrolling in future science programs and Consequently, a science-based career, is influenced by many factors; attitude towards science is just one factor, although it is a critical one. Archer et al. (2013) show that, despite positive views toward science, only a small proportion of 10-14 year olds in the UK aspire to become scientists. For example, they found that families exert a considerable influence on students‟ aspirations. They stated that: “This influence operates in many ways, but a key factor affecting the likelihood of a student aspiring to a science-related career by the age of 14 is the amount of „science capital‟ a family has. Science capital as they define it” refers to science-related - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey qualifications, understanding, knowledge about science and „how it works, interest and social contacts (e.g. knowing someone who works in a science-related job) (p.3). Sun et al. (2012) found that parents‟ attitudes towards science is statistically significant factor for scienceachievement in Hong Kong.Ho Sui-Chu and Wilms (1996) identified four types of involvement of parents in their children achievements two are based at home, two at school: Discussing school activities, monitoring out-of-school activities, contacts with school staff. and Volunteering and attending parent-teacher conferences and other school events. Lee and Miller (2001) found that involvement at home contributed to positive attitudes toward school, while involvement at school contributed to higher grades. In science learning parents can inculcate a scientific temper in growing children. The essence of scientific spirit is curiosity, and questioning of dogmas, superstitions and explanations given about cause and effect. Responsible parents can impart this spirit to their children. Keith et al. (1998) stated that Parents involvement include providing necessary materials that include stimulating literacy materials such as general knowledge books on science topics for reading in spare time, encourage them to join extra lessons at school especially for those who are at risk of under achievement, creating a daily schedule and follow up with homework performance, asking questions about each subject, response to school concerns on attendance and misconduct issues and monitoring of television viewing. Research clearly indicates that when students do their homework and get parent help, they perform better and their attitude and effort improve (Scales et al. 2000). The students tend to be more motivated, and would be more eager to make sure that their ongoing performance meets the expectations of parents. Often, supportive parents would also take all necessary measures within their means to ensure their children succeed academically. Thus the responsibility for children's' educational development is a collaborative enterprise among parents and school staff. Another aspect of family interaction with school is the communication with school counselors regarding their children conduct, academic progress and advice on future careers. This kind of communication may include private meeting or through some orientation sessions for parents.For example, accurate knowledge about science, mathematics and technology professions and career prospects are key elements of orientation for parents, but are currently fraught with stereotypes and incomplete information. Science and Technology face increasing competition for good students from new, more fashionable subjects in higher education such as business, administration, and Information Technology. Improving school counseling and career service is among these measures. Schools in these countries require counselors to be academically specialized in a school counseling program and have licenses (Akos and Tier 2005). A wide study by Williams (1998), using a large, long-term national database (NELS: 88), examined the effect of parent involvement on the achievement of about 14,000 middle-grade students. It found that parents‟ educational expectations and out-of-school activities are positively linked to all measures of their children‟s achievement. These effects occur in all pairings of parents with sons and daughters. Williams concludes that parent involvement programs should be designed to increase the ways that fathers and mothers interact with their sons and daughters about academic achievement. “Parents are an untapped resource and their parent-child interactions can be altered to enhance in-school performance” (p. 10). Perera et.al(2014) used data from Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2006 survey for 15 OECD and non-OECD countries and examined to what extent parents‟ attitudes towards science (how much they value science and the importance they place on it) can influence their children‟s science achievement. Their findings indicate that parents‟ attitudes towards science have a positive and statistically significant effect on science achievement, after controlling for other important student and school-level variables. Moreover, students from poor backgrounds appear to benefit from more positive parental science attitudes as much as students from high socioeconomic status, such that equality of student achievement is not affected. Qatari Students’ Interest and Attitude toward Science In a previous study Said et al. (2016) found that Qatari Students‟ interest and attitude toward Science are highly influenced by home environment and family education background. Surveying about 3200 students, the study 143 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey found that characteristics of the students‟ home environment indicating their family values education, such as their parents‟ educational background and involvement, can lead to more-positive attitudes toward science. Students with a parent who had received post-secondary education, such as a vocational or college degree, were less negative about science (ES = 0.1). If both parents had received post-secondary education, then their child was even less negative about science (ES = 0.2). Additionally, students who talk with someone in their family about what they learn in school at least once a week expressed more-positive attitudes toward science than students who talk with their families less often (ES = 0.4 corresponds to 1.5 times higher). All the above aspects associated with the role of families and their impact on students‟ science learning and attitudes toward science in Qatari schools are the subjects of the current study Method A 5-point Likert scale survey was conduct at 24 preparatory (grades 7-9) and secondary schools (grades 10-12). The survey consists of 21 items with a total of 38 sub-items. The main items will be presented in the result section. The survey consists of 22 statements and was validated by internal pilot with 8 parents from 4 schools representing the two genders at two levels (preparatory and secondary level) The students of these schools participated in a survey on assessing the science interest, attitude, and self-efficacy (Said et al. 2018). . It was then distributed to 24 schools from different area who participated in the current project. We received 320 responses only (27% only) out of about 1200 parents contacted (312 valid responses analyzed). We, also, managed to have a focus group meeting that was attended by 24 parents (all males). In this report we present the main results from the survey and focus group meetings. Statistical comparison of the responses of males with female parent are presented on confidence of parents in their children schools and science teachers, their regular interactions and communication with schools in addition to their role in their future high education and future careers.Parents of 320 students responded to the survey, 312 were valid (166 males and 146 females). Results were analyzed using SSPS program. In addition, a focus group meeting of 24 parents from 8 schools was arranged. Results and Discussion The results from both survey and focus group meeting, combined, are presented in five sections as below. Parental Support The survey results indicate that about 50% of parents do not talk frequently or regularly with their children about their science learning (figure1). This part is attributed, in part, to the educational background of parents (surveyed) or they are not familiar with science content of the curriculum. “I can‟t understand any science topic; how can I help? My son never told me he has a problem in science, he is fine in science subjects” [Non-Qatari, grade 11 male‟s parent]. But did you try to ask him about teachers, or if he has any problem in learning science? He said: ” here girls talk to their mothers more than boys talk, unless the boy wants something, such as talking to his teacher to excuse him from a test or he was punished, he will never complain or discuss his problems” A Qatari parent said ” I talk sometimes with my son; he takes my advice on how can he understand some difficult topics. I frequently ask him about his marks in subjects or if he has any problem in any topic especially in science and math”. 144 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Figure 1. Parents‟ involvement in their children‟s science learning Another Qatari parent said: “I hired a private science teacher who teaches my son and my two daughters, he solves their problems”. Asked if he thinks a private tutor help them understand the content, few parents agreed but one parent explained: „Not always, I hired a female physics teacher last year for my grade 11 daughter, she was happy with her, the teacher left at the end of last year, we hired another teacher this year, she didn‟t obtain high mark in the first term, she said I understand better without her, so we asked the tutor to give lessons only during the revision time before the exams” These opinions were also heard from few students during the interviews. Private tutoring is highly prevailed in Qatar. It is common that families hire private tutors for their children in most subjects, especially in mathematics, science and English subjects. A released report (Alemadi et al., 2012) on Qatar education by the Social and Economic Survey Research Institute (SESRI) indicated that 31% of the 1848 surveyed preparatory and secondary school students use private tutoring (34% among secondary independent schools and 25% among preparatory schools). Parent Engagement and Involvement with Schools and Teachers The survey results indicate that there is a serious lack of parents‟ participation and involvement in their children‟s schools (figures 2 and 3). This was also expressed by all administrators and teachers who put the parents‟ participation in school meetings, in general, between 12-18%. Table1. Frequent Parents talk with their children Frequent talk of parents with children when they have problems in science Males Females learning. n* M SDm n* M Effect size dCohen Level of difference Between the two genders SDf Significant (females more) n* represents the total number of respondents who indicated very often and frequent talks (Total respondents to the survey 312). Almost all the time + frequent talks 36 1.87 1.4 50 2.37 1.02 0.41 Parents of male students show more engagement (although still low) in their children schools and communication with science teachers as shown in table-2 and figures 2 and 3. This less engagement of female parents (mainly mothers) with teachers compared with males‟ parents (mainly fathers) is related to social and educational backgrounds of the parents. Girls usually perform better than boys, they have less problems that require direct contacts with teachers. Table -2 show the statistical significance of this difference. 145 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 2. Statistical comparison of males‟ and females‟ parents‟ in communication with schools and science teachers Males Females Effect Level of size difference dCohen Between the two genders‟ parents Contacts with school Contact with teachers n* M SDm n* M SDf 164 3.24 1.11 144 2.8 1.01 0.416 164 2.26 1.05 142 1.9 0.98 0.35 Significant (males more) Low to Medium significance(males more) In the focus group meeting, parents where asked about the reasons for low participation; the majority attributed this to lack of time, few said the traffic, some said they do not find meetings important. Few also mentioned the bad timings of the meetings. For this latter issue “the bad timing” two vice principals in a separate meetings said they changed the timing several times in their schools but the % attendance of parents did not change. One parent said: “Schools always contact us when there are behavior problems in which our children are involved, but no one listen to us when we have a complaint against a teacher or other students‟ behavior”. He meant bullying against their children by others. Asked what about meetings with teachers? We rarely have a call from teachers only when they complain about our children behavior but not about academic issue” one parent said with signs of agreement from most of the parents Figure 2. Communication of parents with their children‟s schools Another parent said: “This depends on the teacher and the circumstances; for example the physics‟ teacher one time called me saying that my son needs to have extra lessons in mathematics, he understands physics very well but he must improve his math skill” Many parents agreed and also raised the mathematics issue. This issue was also a concern expressed by many science teachers and administrators during their interviews. Parents were asked during the meeting, if anyone has communicated with his child school or teachers through the E-learning portal at the MEHE site? No one said he does except one. 146 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Parents’ Confidence in Their Children’s Schools and Science Teachers Table – 3 and figure-4, show that between 30-35% of parents expressed some non-confidence in their children‟s schools‟ science teachers (Note that somewhat confident in the figure is more or less not a straightforward statement). Table-4 shows that female students‟ parents have significantly, more confidence in their children‟s school teachers than male students‟ parent have (effect size 0.43 and 0.51 respectively) Figure 3. Communication of parents with their children‟s teachers Table 3. Parents‟ confidence in their children‟s school science teachers (N=312) Males %* Females Highly confident 20 11.8 34 Confident and quite confident 85 51.5 62 Slightly and not confident 59 35.3 46 No answer 2 1.5 4 Total 166 146 * Rounded figures % 23.8 42.4 31.5 2.7 Table 4. Statistical comparison of confidence of males‟ and females‟ parents‟ inschools and science teachers Level of Effect size difference Males Females Between the two dCohen genders n M SD n M SD * * m f Confident and highly confident in 8 3.0 1.5 9 3.6 1.0 0.43 Significant school 6 7 6 3 8 (Females more) Confident and highly confident in science teachers 6 0 3.0 0 1.2 3 147 6 8 3.5 8 1.0 6 0.51 Highly significant (Females more) International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Figure 4. Parents‟ confidence in their children‟s schools and science teachers The reasons that parents of female students are more confident in schools and science teachers, in the authors belief, are: first Complaints of female students against schools and teachers are less than male students, similarly complaints from schools and teachers are also less against females, therefore parents feel that the schools and teachers are relatively better; second Qatari female students, in general, perform better than male students as evidenced from international test results (PISA 2015); which also make parent more confidence in science teachers and school support. During the parents‟ focus group meeting a parent of grade 12 male student said: “My son complained that his teacher is only worried that he may not be able to finish the syllabus, so he sometimes gives them too much topics in a single period “several grade 12 students‟ parent echoed the same statement. One parent, who is an engineer, said that he has a grade 11 son and a grade 12 daughter “The daughter complained also about the same issue but the grade 11 boy complained about how their physics teacher explains physics content to them”. He gave one example: “At one time he asked the teacher a question about the mathematical expression of heat transfer when ice is added to water, what if I forgot to remember the expression in the exam, how can I derive the equation? The teacher told him it is better to remember it because it is long”. A similar case was told by a grade 11 female father, who is a biology teacher, about a chemistry teacher in a girl secondary school: ” She told the class there is no way you will understand the rules of balancing oxidation reduction equations only if you memorize balancing these equations” These cases reflect part of how some teachers are still encouraging learning by the traditional rote learning style. One parent told the meeting: “When my son was in grade 8 and 9, he used to tell us about the fun they used to have in the science lab, and demonstrate to his younger brother and sister the balloon experiment and playing with soap and many more, once he moved to secondary school he complained that they only go few times to the lab” Many parents agreed that at secondary schools, the lab activities are rarely carried out, teachers and science coordinators attributed this lack to the very extensive curricula of science subjects and teachers struggle to complete their contents. At present, MEHE is engaged with extensive revisions to reduce these contents. 148 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey It is surprising that most schools‟ administrators believe that their science school teachers are not skilled enough to deliver the curriculum effectively especially the practical activities, although they have the qualifications and professional licenses (Said et al. 2018). Parents’ Role in their Children’s Future Education and Careers How do parents view their role and school role in different aspects of their children‟s further education and careers? About 51% of parents believe that the child is more influenced by parents than by teacher (13-18%) and friends (about 10%) in choosing his future career as shown in figure 5. While about (54-58%) said that the child decides his further education in consultation with parents (figure 6). Figure 5. Parents‟ view on influence on their children‟s future careers As can be seen from the two figures only little difference exists between the views of male and female parents Few parents mentioned the role of school counselors in guiding students on their future careers. “Counselor calls only when there is a behavior issue, my son never mentioned him” [one parent said with overwhelming agreement from other parents]. Figure 6. Parents‟ view on influence on their children‟s future higher education 149 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey In a recent meeting on education attended by the authors, one senior MEHE said that the Ministry has directed schools and provided some workshops and booklets on career guidance services that schools should provide. The Education and Supervision Department has launched a program called “Advance” and it provides advice on career guidance to schools. A school vice principal told the LPI that his school already started the program of advising students especially after the creation of another science track from next year to encourage students to take more science subjects. Three parents in the meeting indicated that they encourage their children to participate in Qatar Science Club, watch scientific TV programs such as Discovery Satellite Channel and also buy books on scientists and inventions. One parent said that his son participated in several competitions at Qatar University and Texas A&M University-Qatar. One parent said: “My son likes Astronomy, he watches all films and related programs. Whenever I find an article in a magazine or newspaper I cut it for him to read”. Parents’ Encouragement of their Children Engagements in “Out of School Activities” Figure 7 from the survey results, shows a modest support of parents for their children in this aspect of engagement. As expected, male students are more encouraged although they still at low level (38% compared with 21% of female students). Figure 7. Parents‟ view on influence on their children‟s engagement in after-school activities Conclusions Qatari school parents show little interaction with schools and teachers despite the facilities and programs offered by MEHE and schools. This low involvement is featured by:  Very low participation of parents in schools‟ meeting and engagement in school activities that doesn‟t exceed 15-18% of students‟ population,  Weak communication link between parents and science teachers‟  Very low level of concern about students‟ future high education and careers  Medium level trust of parents in science teachers,  Little help and support for children in their science learning, such as solving problems and assistance in assignments, some of them hire tutors instead.   Few periodical talks and conversations about science subjects and activities between parents and children Low counselor guidance is offered by schools on future careers and science programs enrollment at higher education institutes, 150 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey  Very few parents (1%) use the e-learning portal offered by MEHE for follow up of their children schooling despite several messages and calls for training by schools‟ administrations and the Ministry. Acknowledgements This research was made possible by grant # NPRP 8-503-5-065 from the Qatar National Research Fund, QNRF (a member of Qatar Foundation). We are grateful also to Dr. Rupert Maclean, QAPCO Professional Chair in Vocational Studies and UNESCO Chair on TVET and Sustainable Development and Coordinator of the UNESCO-UNEVOC Centre for Qatar at the College of North Atlantic-Qatar (CNA-Q) for funding the travel to Turkey. We are indebted to all parents participated in this projects by either filling the survey or participation in the focus group meeting. The statements made herein are solely the responsibility of the author(s). References Akos, p., & Tier, J. 2005. An examination of Media Representations of School Counselors. Journal of Technology in Counselling, vol. 4, issue 1. Retrieved from http://www.unc.edu/depts/ed/med_sch_counseling/faculty.html Al-Emadi, D., Al-Emadi, A., Diop, A. Trung Le, K. Kimmel, L. Wittrock, J. & Zikri, S.A. (2012) Qatar Education Study: Students‟ Motivation and Parental Participation Report Social & Economic Survey Research Institute (SESRI) Qatar University -Doha, Qatar. https://qspace.qu.edu.qa/bitstream/handle/10576/4670/Student%20Motivation%20and%20Parental%20Particip ation%20Report.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Archer, L., Osborne, J. De Witt, J, Willis, B. and Wong, B. (2013) The ASPIRES project (Children‟s science and careers‟ aspirations, age 10-14): Interim research report summary (2013). London: University of London, King‟s College. Angeli, E., Wagner, J., Lawrick, E., Moore, K., Anderson, M., Soderland, L., & Brizee, A. (2010, May 5). General format. Retrieved from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ Dick, T. P., & Rallis, S. F. (1991). Factors and influences on high school students' career choices. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22(4), 281-292. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/749273 Henderson, A. T. &. Mapp. K.L, 2002. A New Wave of Evidence: The Impact of School, Family, and Community Connections on Student Achievement. Austin, TX: National Center for Family Ho Sui-Chu, E., & Willms, J. D. (1996). Effects of parental involvement on eighth-grade achievement. Sociology of Education, 69(2), 126-141. EJ533315. Retrieved from ERIC https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ533315 Jeynes, W.H. 2003. A meta-analysis: The effects of parental involvement on minority children‟s academic achievement. Education & Urban Society 35(2): 202-218. Community Connections with Schools, Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. Keith, T.Z., Kenith, P.B., Quirk, K.J., Sperduth, J., Santillo, S. & Killings, S (1998). Longitudinal effects of parents‟ involvement on high school grades: Similarities and differences across gender and ethnic groups. Journal of School Psychology, 36(3), 335-63. OECD ( 2018 ), Education GPS, PISA 2015 country report retrieved from http://gpseducation.oecd.org Perera, L.D. H., Bomhoff ,E. J., & Lee, G.H.Y. (2014). Parents‟ attitudes towards science and their children‟s science achievement. Sociology of Education, 69(2) pp. 126-141.Retrieved from https://www.monash.edu/business/economics/research/publications/2014/0214parentspererabomhoffle e.pdf Said, Z., Summers, R., Abd-El-Khalick, F. & Wang, S., (2016). Attitudes toward science among grades 3 through12 Arab students in Qatar: findings from a cross sectional national study, International Journal of Science Education 38(4), pp.621-643, Also Available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2016.1156184 Said, Z., Al-Emadi, A.A., Friesen, H. L. & Elina Adam(2018). Assessing the Science Interest, Attitude, and Self-Efficacy of Qatari Students at the Preparatory, Secondary, and University Levels. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 2018, 14(12), em1618 ISSN:13058223(online) http://www.ejmste.com/,94733,0,2.html Scales, P. C., Blythe, D. A., Berkas, T. H., & Kielsmeier, J. C. (2000). The effects of service-learningon middle school students‟ social responsibility and academic success. Journal of Early Adolescence, 20(3) 332– 358. Shumow, L., & Miller, J. D. (2001). Parents‟ at-home and at-school academic involvement with young adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21(1), 68–91. EJ628426. 151 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Sun, L., Bradley, K. D., & Akers, K. (2012). A multilevel modelling approach to investigating factors impacting science achievement for secondary school students: PISA Hong Kong sample. International Journal of Science Education, 34(14), 2107- 2125. Williams, D. B. (1998). Parent involvement gender effects on preadolescent student performance. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA. ED420401. Down loaded from ERIC https://eric.ed.gov/?q=ED420401 Author Information Ziad Said Ahmad A. Al-Amadi College of the North Atlantic Doha- State of Qatar Qatar Contact E-mail: Ziad.said@cna-qatar.edu.qa Qatar University Qatar 152 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 153-162 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Incidence, Consequences and Control of Students’ Unrest in Tertiary Institutions in Lagos State, Southwest Nigeria Olumuyiwa VIATONU Michael Otedola College of Primary Education Olubusayo ASIKHIA School of Education Folake FABINU School of Primary Education Abiodun ADEMOLA Michael Otedola College of Primary Education Abstract: The purpose of the study was to investigate the occurrence, consequences and control of students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions in Lagos State, southwest Nigeria. The study was borne out of persistent students‟ revolts and unrests in tertiary institutions in Lagos State in particular and Nigeria in general with its concomitant breakdown of law and order. The population was made up of all staff, students, heads of all tertiary institutions and student union executive members in selected tertiary institutions in Lagos State out of which 954 respondents were selected through a stratified random sampling technique. Four structured questionnaires, with a reliability coefficient (r) of 0.84 obtained through a test-retest method, were used to collect data for the study. Data collected were analysed using frequency counts, percentages, correlation analysis, t-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).The findings revealed that students‟ unrest occurred more frequently in State-owned tertiary institutions than those owned by the Federal Government. The study also revealed a significant difference in the consequences and control of students‟ unrest in both Federal and State tertiary institutions. It was recommended that government especially at the State level should appropriate more funds to tertiary institutions and that management of institutions should make judicious use of funds allocated to them. It was also recommended that students should be carried along in the decision-making process of their institutions especially on matters affecting their well-being. Keywords: Student unrest, Incidence, Consequences, Control, Tertiary institution Introduction The importance of education in the acquisition of knowledge and productive skills for a meaningful socioeconomic and political development of any society cannot be over-emphasised. This is because education occupies a strategic position in individual and societal growth and development. This explains why education is fundamental to the growth and development of the society. In light of the foregoing, tertiary institutions have been established to provide sound and qualitative education so that their graduates can be self-reliant, selffulfilling and to attain optimum productivity in life (Akeusola, Viatonu and Asikhia, 2012). To this end, the National Policy on Education (2013) has highlighted the goals of tertiary education to include: a) Contribution to national development through training of high level manpower; b) Promotion and encouragement of scholarship, entrepreneurship and community service; c) Reduction of skill shortages through the production of skilled manpower relevant to the labour market; - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey d) The acquisition of both physical and intellectual skills that enable individuals to develop into careful members of the community; and e) Promoting national and international understanding and interaction. These goals are to be achieved through teaching, articulated research, knowledge dissemination and service to the community. However, tertiary institutions in Nigeria have continued to witness disruption in their academic activities occasioned by student unrests which on many occasions have led to violent confrontation with the institutions‟ management, security agencies and even the government thus making it difficult for the institutions to achieve the goals of tertiary education (Akpan, 2014; Makinde, 2014). Students‟ unrest, according to Malley (2013), is when students are dissatisfied with and fighting against certain social ills or irregularities at local, national and international levels. Some felicitous examples were aptly captured in The Nation Newspapers of January 10th and 25th, 2012 with the following headlines: Youth killed over fuel subsidy Police disperse protesting students Students clash with police Students protest at the University of Ibadan Studies (Ajibade 2012; Egboluche, 2013;David, 2013; Ige,2013; Akpan, 2014) among others have also shown the incidence and consequences of student unrests in Nigerian tertiary institutions as precipitated by several factors. Some of these factors are non-participation of students in decision making process, academic stress, changing value systems of students, teachers‟ influence, parental influence, contemporary national issues and welfare problems. Akindele (2014) also noted that inadequate classrooms, ill-equipped library and laboratories have been responsible for student crises in Nigerian tertiary institutions. Furthermore, Akeusola, Viatonu and Asikhia (2012) have noted that inadequate funding, mismanagement of resources and cult activities have led to violent student protests in institutions of higher learning in Nigeria. Some of the incidence of student unrest in Nigeria, their causes and consequences are outlined in the table below (see table 1). Table 1. Incidence of student‟s unrest in Nigeria 154 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Also, studies ( Ige, 2013; Tatalovic, 2014; Wragg, 2014) have shown that students‟ unrest has led to students‟ misbehaviour, boycott of classes, disturbances, loss of lives and property, breakdown of law and order and disturbance of public peace. Although students‟ crisis is a global phenomenon which has ravaged countries like Peru, Columbia, Paraguay, Bolivia, Mexico and some African countries like South Africa in Southern Africa; Senegal, Cote d‟Ivoire and Republic of Benin in West Africa, Cameroon, Zaire and Gabon in Central Africa, its occurrence in Nigeria in the recent past has assumed such an alarming proportion that educationists, administrators, policy makers and other stakeholders have been compelled to look for ways to curb the menace (Ajibade, 2012; Malley, 2014). This becomes more imperative because the main aim of higher education in Nigeria is to give very sound and qualitative education which, according to Adeyemi, Ekundayo and Alonge (2010), will enable an individual to function effectively in any environment in which he finds himself. This was also noted by Lawal and Viatonu (2017) who opined that the general mandate of tertiary institutions is to generate knowledge and information through teaching and community service and extend the frontiers of knowledge through research. This shows that the importance of tertiary education to national development cannot be over emphasized. However, the country (Nigeria) cannot achieve any meaningful development in a crisis- ridden or violent-prone education system. Questions that readily come to mind are: what are the main causes of student unrests? Do the internal influences within the country alone account for the present stance of the Nigerian students? Should students be allowed to participate in the administration of their institutions? Would such involvement and participation minimize their agitations and hence reduce the chances of any violent confrontation? Do the institution‟s administrators realise that the use of force against the students cannot always bring a positive effect but rather harden their attitudes and ultimately make matters worse? There cannot be an end to these and many other questions on the incidence, causes and control of students‟ crises in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. This present study therefore attempts to find out the incidence, consequences and control of student unrests in tertiary institutions in Nigeria by using Federal and State owned tertiary institutions in Lagos State as a case study. Statement of the Problem The continuous occurrence of students‟ unrest and its concomitant wastage of human, material and financial resources on the nation‟s economy are becoming worrisome. The inability of tertiary education to fulfil its major objective of providing sound and qualitative education that will make it serve as agent of development through teaching and research for knowledge creation and dissemination is now a major concern to educators, policy makers and other stakeholders. This long standing problem of students‟ unrest has severely constrained the realization of various developmental initiatives in the country. Therefore, the need to adequately conduct a study on the consequences and control of students‟ unrests in tertiary institutions in Lagos State in particular and Nigeria in general has become imperative if the objectives of tertiary education are to be fully realized. Hypotheses The following null hypotheses were stated and tested at p< 0.05 level of significance: Ho.1 There is no significant difference in the incidence of students‟ unrest between Federal and State owned tertiary institutions in Lagos State. Ho.2: There is no significant difference between consequences of students‟ unrest in Federal and State tertiary institutions in Lagos State. Ho.3: There is no significant difference between the control of students‟ unrest in Federal and State tertiary institutions in Lagos State. Methodology Research Design The study adopted the descriptive survey research design. This research design was used because data were collected over a large area for making description about the incidence, consequences and control of students‟ unrest in Federal and State tertiary institutions in Lagos State. 155 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Population The population of the study was made up of all Vice-Chancellors/Rectors/Provosts (Chief Executive Officers) students, staff (academic and non-academic) and students‟ union executive in all Federal and State higher institutions located in Lagos State. Sample and Sampling Technique A sample of three Federal tertiary institutions representing the three tiers of higher education (University of Lagos, Akoka, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba and Federal College of Education (Technical), Akoka) and three state-owned tertiary institutions (Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu and Michael Otedola College of Primary Education, Noforija-Epe) were selected. Simple random sampling technique was used in selecting 954 respondents. The respondents were selected as follows: S/N Institutions Table 2. Distribution of respondents according to institution Students Students Union Academic & Excos Non-Academic Staff Male Female Male Female Male Female of 50 50 4 4 25 25 1. University Lagos, Akoka. 2. Lagos State University, Ojo. Yaba College of Technology, Yaba. Lagos State Polytech-nic, Ikorodu. Federal College of Education(T), Akoka. Michael Otedola College of Primary Education, Noforija-Epe. TOTAL 3. 4. 5. 6. CEOs TOTAL 1 159 50 50 4 4 25 25 1 159 50 50 4 4 25 25 1 159 50 50 4 4 25 25 1 159 50 50 4 4 25 25 1 159 50 50 4 4 25 25 1 159 300 300 24 24 150 150 6 954 Research Instruments Four (4) structured questionnaires were administered to four (4) groups – Heads of sampled tertiary institutions, the Student Union Executives, students, academic and non-academic staff of the sampled tertiary institutions. Section A of the questionnaires consisted of items requesting personal demographic information from the respondents such as sex, age, name of institution while section B consisted of items dealing with school fees, management styles of heads of institutions, government policies, school environment, accommodation for students and teaching learning and welfare facilities, relationship with the host community, student unionism cult activities and a host of other perceived causes of students crisis. The instruments also sought to find out the number of occurrence of students‟ unrest, consequences and strategies for controlling or preventing the menace in institutions of higher learning in Lagos State. Validity of the Instrument The content validity of the instrument was determined by experts in test and measurement who were asked to examine the arrangement and adequacy of the items, difficulty of the wordings and match each item of the questionnaire with the research questions and hypotheses to ascertain whether the instrument actually measured 156 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey what it was supposed to measure. Moreover, it has been used in a previous study (Akeusola, Viatonu and Asikhia, 2012). Reliability of the Instrument The reliability of the instrument was determined through test-retest reliability co-efficient. In doing this, a pilot study was carried out in 6 tertiary institutions in Ogun State which shared similar characteristics with the selected institutions for the study. The institutions used for the pilot study were one each of Federal University (Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta); State University (Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun, Ijebu-Ode); Federal Polytechnic (Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro), State Polytechnic (Moshood Abiola Polytechnic, Ojere-Abeokuta); Federal College of Education (Federal College of Education, Osiele-Abeokuta) and State College of Education (Tai Solarin College of Education, Omu-Ijebu). The instruments were administered to 4 (2 male and 2 female) students union executive members, 10 (5 male and 5 female) students in each of the 6 selected institutions, 10 (5 male and 5 female) academic and non-academic staff, as well as 6 (1 each) Student Affairs‟ Officers of each selected tertiary institutions in Ogun State. After a period of two weeks, the instruments were re-administered to the same respondents. The data collected on the two tests were collated and analyzed using the Pearson Product Moment reliability. A correlation coefficient „r‟ of 0.84. This was an indication that the instruments were suitable and reliable for the study. Administration of the Instrument The researchers made use of research assistants in the administration and retrieval of the instruments from the respondents in various institutions selected for the study. Data Analysis The data were collected and analyzed using frequency counts, percentages and Pearson Product Moment Correlation analysis while Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. Results The results of the study are presented below: Test of Hypotheses Ho.1: There is no significant difference between the incidence of students‟ unrest in federal and state owned tertiary institutions in Lagos State. Table 3. Incidence of students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions in Lagos state Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent UNILAG 98 10.3 10.3 LASU 282 29.6 39.9 YABATECH 106 11.1 51.0 LASPOTECH 215 22.5 73.5 FCE-TECH 147 15.4 88.9 MOCPED 106 11.1 100.0 TOTAL 954 100.0 Source: Akeusola, Viatonu and Asikhia (2012) Table 3a. Descriptive statistics of incidence of student crises in federal and state tertiary institutions in Lagos state N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Federal 30 4.30 29.00 11.47 5.82 State 30 9.20 48.30 20.33 9.60 Valid N (listwise) 30 157 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 3b. Paired sample test of incidence of student crises in federal and state tertiary institutions in Lagos state Paired Difference Mean Std. Std.Error Lower Upper T Df Sig. (2Deviation Mean tailed) Pair 1 -8.86333 5.92059 1.08095 11.07412 -6.65255 -8.200 29 .000 Table 3a shows that the mean score of the incidence of students‟ crisis in federal institution is 11.47 while it is 20.33 for state institutions with maximum score of 48.30 for federal as against 29.00 for the state. The standard deviation is 5.82 for federal and 9.60 for state. Thus, the mean occurrence of students‟ crisis is greater in state institutions. The mean difference is found to be statistically significant at 0.05 level of significant as shown in Table 3b. Therefore the null hypothesis of no significant difference between the occurrence of students‟ crisis in state and federal institutions in Lagos State is hereby rejected. Ho.2: There is no significant difference in the consequences of students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions in Lagos State. Table 4. Crosstab Analysis consequences of students‟ unrests among tertiary institutions UNILAG LASU YABATE LASPOT FCE MOCPED CH ECH AKOKA Disruption of Count 124 87 0 0 0 0 211 school activities Expected 27.4 44.7 18.8 49.8 29.9 40.5 211.0 Count Elongation of Count 0 66 0 0 0 0 66 academic calendar Expected 8.6 14.0 5.9 15.6 9.3 12.7 66.0 Count Closure of school Count 0 49 73 0 0 0 122 Expected 15.9 25.8 10.9 28.8 17.3 23.4 122.0 Count Sanction or Count 0 0 12 48 0 0 60 expulsion of some students Expected 7.8 12.7 5.3 14.2 8.5 11.5 60.0 Count Vandalization of Count 0 0 0 160 0 0 160 properties Expected 20.8 33.9 14.3 37.7 22.6 30.7 160.0 Count Loss of lives Count 0 0 0 17 91 0 108 Expected 14.0 22.9 9.6 25.5 15.3 20.7 108.0 Count Police Count 0 0 0 0 44 75 119 intervention/confo ntation Expected 15.5 25.2 10.6 28.1 16.8 22.8 119.0 Count Overall poor Count 0 0 0 0 0 108 108 academic standard Expected 14.0 22.9 9.6 25.5 15.3 20.7 108.0 Count Count 124 202 85 225 135 183 954 Expected 124.0 202.0 85.0 225.0 135.0 183.0 954.0 Count 158 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 4 shows that of the variant consequences of students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions in Lagos state, disruption of school activities (211, 22.1%) was rated as being the highest consequence while sanction or expulsion of erring students (60, 6.3%) was the minimum consequence observed. Table 5. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of consequences of students‟ unrest among tertiary institutions in Lagos state Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 5321.182 5 1064.236 3684.687 .000 Within Groups 273.808 948 .289 Total 5594.990 953 F (5,948) = 3684.687, F(tab) = 3.20, df = 953, P<0.05 The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) in table 5 shows a statistical significant difference in the respondents‟ perception of the consequences of students‟ unrests in tertiary institutions in Lagos state. Since the F(5,948) = 3684.687 is greater than the F(tab) = 3.20 with a difference of 953 at 0.05 level of significance, the hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the consequences of students‟ unrests in tertiary institutions in Lagos state is hereby rejected, and an alternate hypothesis which states that there is a significant difference in the consequences of students unrests in tertiary institutions in Lagos State is adopted. Ho.3: There is no significant difference in the control of students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions in Lagos State. Table 6. Crosstab Analysis of the control measurs of students‟ unrests among tertiary institutions UNILAG LASU YABATECH LASPOTECH FCE(T) MOCPED AKOKA Stable and moderate tuition Students' friendly and effective leadership Count 124 100 0 0 0 0 224 Expecte d Count 29.1 47.4 20.0 52.8 31.7 43.0 224.0 0 102 3 0 0 0 105 13.6 22.2 9.4 24.8 14.9 20.1 105.0 0 0 39 0 0 0 39 5.1 8.3 3.5 9.2 5.5 7.5 39.0 0 0 43 94 0 0 137 17.8 29.0 12.2 32.3 19.4 26.3 137.0 0 0 0 81 0 0 81 10.5 17.2 7.2 19.1 11.5 15.5 81.0 0 0 0 42 0 0 42 5.5 8.9 3.7 9.9 5.9 8.1 42.0 0 0 0 8 52 0 60 7.8 12.7 5.3 14.2 8.5 11.5 60.0 Count Expecte d Count Good government policies and adequate funding Count Expecte d Count Considerate students welfare Count Expecte d Count Efficient teachinglearning facilities Count Expecte d Count Cordial community Count relations Expecte d Count Cultured and Count motivated students unionism Expecte d Count 159 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Total ban on campus cultism Count 0 0 0 0 53 0 53 6.9 11.2 4.7 12.5 7.5 10.2 53.0 0 0 0 0 30 26 56 7.3 11.9 5.0 13.2 7.9 10.7 56.0 0 0 0 0 0 116 116 15.1 24.6 10.3 27.4 16.4 22.3 116.0 0 0 0 0 0 41 41 Expecte d Count 5.3 8.7 3.7 9.7 5.8 7.9 41.0 Count Expecte d Count 124 124.0 202 202.0 85 85.0 225 225.0 135 135.0 183 183.0 954 954.0 Expecte d Count Good governance Count and effective social security Expecte d Count Students' participation in administration Count Expecte d Count Dialogue with parents and other stakeholders Count The crosstabs in table 6 show that stable and moderate tuitions (224, 23.5%) was considered as the most effective control measure for students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions in Lagos state, while good government policies (39, 4.1%) would also help in reducing the problem. Table 7. Analysis of variance of control measures of students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions in Lagos state Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 10465.732 5 2093.146 5166.153 .05 Within Groups 384.097 948 .405 Total 10849.829 953 F (5,948) = 5166.153, F (tab) = 3.20, df = 953, P<0.05 Table 7 shows a statistical significant difference in the perceived control measures of students‟ unrests in tertiary institutions in Lagos state. Since the F(5,948) = 5166.153 is greater than the F(tab) = 3.20 with a difference of 953 at 0.05 level of significance, the hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the control of students‟ unrests in tertiary institutions in Lagos state is hereby rejected, and an alternate hypothesis which states that there is a significant difference in the control of students‟ unrests in tertiary institutions in Lagos State is adopted. Discussion of Findings Students‟ unrest, in whatever form or guise, negatively affects the roles of any higher institution in achieving the goals of national development for which it was set up (David, 2013). This perhaps explains why the findings of this study are quite important and timely. The first hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the occurrence of students‟ unrest between federal and state-owned tertiary institutions in Lagos State was rejected. This is an indication that state-owned tertiary institutions are more prone to students‟ unrest than their federal counterparts. This difference may be because funds that are allocated to Federal higher institutions are promptly released unlike their counterparts in State-owned higher institutions. It may also be because of the differences that may exist in these institutions in terms of the nature of students, leadership, student unionism, staff strength and quality of staff. The findings of the study corroborate those of Odu (2013), Omonijo, Uche, Rotimi and Nwadialor (2014) and Omisade (2014) who found that funds, equipment and facilities such as lecture halls, laboratories, students‟ hostels, library and office spaces, necessary for teaching, learning and research are either lacking or inadequate in tertiary institutions owned by State Governments. Ajayi and Ekundayo (2006) also noted that the Nigerian governments over the years have not met the United Nations 160 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) recommendation of 26% of the total budget allocation to the education sector. The study also found a significant difference in the consequences of students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions in Lagos State as the hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the consequences of students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions in Lagos State was rejected. This difference may not be unconnected with the disparity in leadership styles of the management of the institutions, availability of funds, the nature of students and students‟ union leadership in place. The study has revealed that disruption of school activities, indefinite closure of schools and vandalization of government property are some of the consequences of students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions in Lagos State. This finding supports the submissions of Akeusola, Viatonu and Asikhia (2012); Hajek (2013) and Anna (2014) that the consequences of violent confrontation with institutions‟ authorities are incessant closure of institutions, loss of lives and property and disruption of academic activities. The study has also revealed a significant difference in the control of students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions in Lagos State as the hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the control of students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions in Lagos State was rejected. The study showed that stable and moderate tuitions was the most effective control measures for students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions in Lagos State. This is contrary to the findings of Adeyemi, Ekundayo and Alonge (2010) and Oludayo,Uche, Omonijo and Eche (2015) which discovered that some of the strategies that can be used to control students‟ unrest are maintaining a cordial relationship between school authority and students and involving the students in decision making process of their institutions. Conclusion and Recommendations The findings of this study have shown that the incidence of students‟ unrest in tertiary institutions should not be handled with levity as the consequences of such unrests have not been palatable to the students, parents, academic and non-academic staff and other stakeholders in the society. This therefore behoves the management in every tertiary institution and the government to handle issues of students with care and every sense of urgency it deserves particularly tuition fees and relationship with the students . Based on the foregoing findings, it is recommended that governments should allocate more funds to the tertiary institutions to make them more effective and efficient in order to realise the objectives for which they were established while Management of tertiary institutions should make adequate and judicious use of the funds allocated to them by the government. It has become evident that government alone cannot fund education. This therefore means that other stakeholders in the education sector such as corporate bodies, philanthropists, alumni associations should join hands with the government in the provision of facilities and equipment in tertiary institutions. Tertiary institutions should endeavour to involve students in the decision-making process particularly on matters affecting their well-being and create avenues where students can express their grievances before they turn violent. References Adeyemi, T. O. (2009). Causes, consequences and control of students crises in public and private universities in Nigeria. Educational Research and Review. 4(4). Adeyemi, T. O., Ekundayo, H. T. and Alonge, H. O. (2010). Management of students‟ crisis in tertiary Institutions in Nigeria. Journal of Research in National Development 8. Ajayi, I. A. and Ekundayo, H. T. (2006). Funding initiatives in universities in Nigeria. Being a paper presented at the National Conference of National Association for Educational Administration and Planning. Ajibade, D. (2012). Students‟ crisis in Nigerian tertiary educational institutions: a review of the causes and management style. Khazar Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. Pp56-76 Akeusola, O., Viatonu,O. and Asikhia, O. A. (2012). Perceived causes and control of Students‟ Crises in Higher Institutions in Lagos State, Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice. 3(10), 60-67 Akindele, I. (2014). The challenges of being a student of any public tertiary institution of Nigeria of today. Journal of Studies in Education. 4(1):129-141 Akpan, M. (2014). Protest in Private Varsities. Available on 161 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey http: //www.punchng.com/opinion/letters/protests-in-private-varsities/ Aluede, O., Jimoh, B., Agwinede, B. O. and Omoregie, E. (2005). “Student Unrest in Nigerian Universities: Looking Back and Forward” Journal of Social Science 10(1), 17-22 David, A. (2013). Students‟ Crisis in Nigerian Tertiary Educational Institutions: A Review of the Causes and Management Style. Khazar Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 16 (1): 56-75. Egboluche, O. (2013). Ebonyi State University still Shut. Nigerian Orient News. Available on http://www.nigerianorientnews.com/?=3053 Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National Policy on Education. Abuja: NERDC Press Ige, A. M. (2013). Evolution of Private Universities in Nigeria: Matters arising and the way forward. Educational Research and Reviews; 8(2): 41-50. Lawal, B. O. and Viatonu, O. (2017). A Comparative Study of Students‟ Access to and Utilization of Learning Resources in selected Public and Private Universities in southwest Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 8 (3), 71-77. Makinde, J. (2014). Violent Protest in Private Universities in Nigeria. Vanguard Daily. Available on http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/02/ajayi-crowther-varsity-closed-over-students-death/ Malley, B. O. (2014). Higher Education Under Violent Attack in 28 Countries. Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack. Available on http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20140227101306206> Odu, O. M. (2013). Management of Students‟ Crisis in Higher Institutions of Learning in Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 4 (8): 1-8. Ojedele, P. and Ilusanya, G. (2006). Planning and policy of higher education in Nigeria. In J. B. Babalola, A. O. Ayeni, S. O. Adedeji, A. A. Suleiman and M. O. Arikewuyo (eds) Educational Management: Thoughts and Practice. Ibadan. Codat publications Oludayo, O. A., Uche, O. O. C., Omonijo, D. O. and Eche, G. A. (2015). Violent Protest in Private Universities in Nigeria: Implications for Educational Development.European Journal of Social Sciences 45(4), 359371. Omisade, T. (2014). OAU shut indefinitely after protests over increase in school fees. Daily Post. Available on http://www.dailypost,ng/2014/06/19oau-shut-indefinitely-protests-increase-school-fees/ Omonijo, D. O., Uche, O. O. C.,Rotimi, O. A. and Nwadialor, K. L. (2014). Social analysis of Moral Practice Challenging Education Sector in Nigeria. British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(7): 965-986. Available on <(http://www.sciencedomain.org/issue.php?iid=462&id=21)> Oyeneye, O. Y. (2006). Current issues in the Administration of University Education in Nigeria. Lecture delivered at the 15th convocation ceremony of the University of Ado-Ekiti, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria, March 29. Tatalovic, M. (2014). University Professors among Protesters in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Priceless Archives Burnt Down in Violent Riots. Available on <http://www.scilogs.com/balkanscience beat/university-professors-among-protestersin-bosnia-and -herzegovina-priceless-archivesburnt-down-in-violent-riots/> Wragg, T. (2014). Violence, Vandalism and Higher Education. Our Kingdom, Power and Liberty in Britain. Available on http://www.opendemocracy.net/ourkingdom/tomwragg/violencevandalism-and-higher-education The Nation Newspaper of January 10, 2012 The Nation Newspaper of April 25 2012 Author Information Olumuyiwa Viatonu Olubusayo Asikhia Director, Degree Programme Michael Otedola College of Primary Education, KM 7, Epe - Ijebu-Ode Road, Noforija – Epe, Lagos State / Nigeria. Contact E-mail: oluviat@gmail.com Dean, School of Education Michael Otedola College of Primary Education, KM 7, Epe - Ijebu-Ode Road, Noforija – Epe, Lagos State, Nigeria. Folake FABINU Abiodun Ademola Head, Department of Early Childhood Care and Education, School of Primary Education Michael Otedola College of Primary Education, KM 7, Epe - Ijebu-Ode Road, Noforija – Epe, Lagos State, Nigeria. Michael Otedola College of Primary Education, KM 7, Epe - Ijebu-Ode Road, Noforija – Epe, Lagos State, Nigeria. 162 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 163-169 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education The Opinions of Middle School Students, High School Students, PreService Science Teachers and Science Teachers about Robotic-Assisted Practices in Teaching Renewable Energy Sources Sibel ACISLI Artvin Çoruh University Abstract: In this research, it is aimed to determine views related about training renewable energy source assisted by robotic education to middle school students, high school students, candidate science teachers and science teachers. In the study, this subject has been tried to teach by using the Lego® Mindstorms EV3 Training Kit and the Lego® Renewable Energy Kit. In the study one group pretest-posttest experimental design was used. The study group of study consists of a total of eighty people including twenty middle school students, twenty high school students, twenty preservice science teachers and twenty science teachers. The training has been proceeded on four stages through eighty hours. Middle school students were trained about robotics in the first stage, high school students were trained in the second stage, preservice science teachers were trained in the third stage and science teachers were trained in the last stage, respectively. In the research, semi-structured interview form has been used for defining opinions and suggestions of middle school students, high school students, candidate science teachers and science teachers about lego assisted training. The data obtained from the research has been analyzed by SPSS packet program. In the light of this study, it is defined how middle school students, high school students, candidate science teachers and science teachers perceived this education with legos as a technique. Keywords: Robotics, Renewable energy resources, Lego® mindstorms EV3 educatin kit, Lego® renewable energy kit, Middle school students, High school students, Teacher candidates, Science teachers Introduction It has become mandatory to use new methods and teaching materials in order to increase the quality of science education, make students interested in the lesson and to relate science subjects in daily life. As long as students become passive and keep taking notes, they cannot use in their lives, the information they learn. For this reason, science lessons become more and more difficult and boring. This situation indicates that our students do not receive a qualified science education and new methods, techniques and approaches should be used in science and technology lessons (Mercan Höbek, 2014). Cameron (2005), when Science and Technology education in the world is examined, a new practicable technology area emerges. This technological innovation, called "Robotic”, which was integrated with various disciplines, has become an essential part of Science and Technology education process and especially science and engineering education (Koç Şenol and Büyük, 2015). The most common area of robotics in education is in the support of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) education. Most of the studies in this field have resulted in the positive effect of robotics in STEM education (Üçgül, 2013). Alimisis, Kynigos (2009), in addition to the usage of technology in educational environments, the interest on the usage of robotics associated with education program has risen worldwide especially in science and technology education from pre-school to higher education institutions in various education programs (Özdoğru, 2013). Tools such as robotics that can be programmed to give programming education with a physical robotic, smart objects and do it yourself kits and sets, virtual robotic programming environments and robotic programming languages have become widespread (Numanoğlu and Keser, 2017). In countries where robotic education is consciously and systematically performed, robotic education is conducted with Lego (Fidan and Yalçın, 2012). Products that are produced by Lego company, has many models, appeal to various age groups and consist of programmable Lego, has positive effects on the problem solving and high- This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey level thinking skills of students (Özdoğru, 2013). Lego is a strong material which is used for making students eager to lesson, to entertain them while learning and to draw their attention to the subject. Increase in the success of the students will provide the motivation for the teacher towards the lesson (Marulcu and Sungur, 2013) Lego practices are commonly used in learning and teaching processes. In this process, it is important that teachers and learners should be interested and eager to robotics practices when reaching the objective. Especially, it is crucial for teachers who have an important role in the process of planning, designing and practicing for robotic practices used in lessons, to be eager/intent, to provide the efficiency of the practices to be conducted and to prepare Lego robotic education practices (Çukurbaşı et al., 2018). There are many studies in the literature which examine the motivations, attitudes and opinions of students about educational robotic activities and towards robotic practices which are getting wider and wider in education. (Hussain, Lindh and Shukur, (2006); Lindh and Holgersson (2007), Atmatzidou, Markelis and Demetriadi (2008); Liu, (2010); Sullivan (2008); Smith, (2013); Kasalak, (2017). There are studies in the literature which state that using robotics in education plays a positive role in learning, develops critical thinking and problem solving skills, is effective in increasing students eagerness to learn (Ersoy, Madran and Gülbahar, 2016; Chen, Quadir and Teng, 2011; Highfield, 2010; Shimada, Kanda and Koizumi, 2012). In his study, Özdoğru (2013) has determined that learning environments enriched with Lego robotic kits increase the motivations of students towards Science and Technology lesson. In Lindh and Holgersson’s (2007) study in which the effects of robotic toys (Lego) was examined, it was observed that success of students has increased in students who like problemsolving activities and students who have taken Lego-logo training have become more successful in the next year. In their study, Atmatzidou, Markelis and Demetriadi (2008) have determined that robotic practices increase the problem-solving skills and programming abilities of students in primary and middle school. Çayır (2010) stated that learning environment supported by Lego-logo has positive effects on scientific process ability and sense of self which is extremely important for the development of 8 th-grade students. Sullivan (2008) stated that robotic activities positively affect students’ scientific process skills. In their study, which was conducted with 6th and 7th-grade students by using Lego Mindstorms robotic kit, Çavaş et al. (2012) have determined that scientific creativity and scientific process skills of students have increased. In their study Fidan and Yalcin (2012) stated that robotic designing and programming with Lego robotic education set is not supposedly difficult, on the contrary, it is fun as well as educative and a person who is not expert on programming language can easily program the robotic made with Lego set. In this context, it is aimed in this study to determine the opinions of middle and high school students, science teacher candidates and science teachers about roboticaided practices in the teaching of renewable energy resources subject. Method This study aims to determine the opinions of middle and high school students, science teacher candidates and science teachers about robotic-aided practices in the teaching of renewable energy resources subject. In the study, one sample pre-test post-test model from pre-experimental designs was used. Study group of the research consists of a total of 80 people, 20 middle school students, 20 high school students, 20 science teacher candidate and 20 science teachers. The education given to each participant group in the research lasted 20 hours. This education lasted a total of 80 hours with 4 phases. Educations about renewable energy subject were given to middle school students in the first phase, to high school students in the second phase, to teacher candidates in third grade and to science teachers at the last phase. In the research, Lego® Mindstorms EV3 Education Set and Lego® Renewable Energy Sets were used in the activities. Lego® Mindstorms EV3 Education Set and Lego® Renewable Energy Set were introduced to participants in the first stage of the practice, then groups of four were made to perform 5 activities in the sets about sun and the wind energy subjects by turns. Data Collection Tools Semi-structured interview form is used in order to determine the opinions and suggestions of middle and high school students, science teacher candidates and science teachers about robotic-aided practices in the teaching of renewable energy resources subject. 164 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Findings A total of 80 people participated in the research with a total of 20 7 th grade students, 10 female and 10 male, 20 male high school students studying in 9th grade, 20 teacher candidates, 12 female, 8 male and 20 science teachers, 14 female and 6 male. In order to disguise the names of the participants in the study group, nicknames were given in accordance with ethical rules, (M.S.S.1, M.S.S.2, M.S.S.3,...) to middle school students, (H.S.S.1, H.S.S.2, H.S.S.3,...) to high school students, (T.C.1,T.C.2,T.C.3,...) to teacher candidates and (T.1,T.2,T.3,...) to teachers. 100% of the participants have answered that yes, it helped to the question which was directed to middle school students, high school students and teacher candidates “Have Lego® Renewable Energy Sources been beneficial while learning renewable energy sources subjects?”. Some of the answers given by participants are as follows: M.S.S.1: “Yes it has. And I had a lot of fun.” M.S.S.2: “Yes it has and I had a blast.” M.S.S.3: “I made a solar car and it moved after I put it under the sun, I had a lot of fun. I want to be an engineer in a car company.” M.S.S.4: “I was always curious about how the solar panel on our building works, now I learned and my curiosity is satisfied, thank you very much.” H.S.S.1: “It helped a lot, we were handling the subject only theoretically.” H.S.S.2: “Learning by performing and experiencing is always better, we do not forget what we’ve learned.” H.S.S.3: “When we practice, not only the lesson becomes more enjoyable but also we learn completely.” H.S.S.3: “Yes, it helped, we produced electricity from wind and sun.” T.C.1: “I think it helped a lot. We made it by ourselves and produced by ourselves. It was a student-centered study.” T.C.2: “Yes it helped, making our own wind turbine was so much fun.” T.C.3: “It helped. It provided a much more fun learning.” T.C.4: “I did not know about Lego that can be used in lessons but now I learned. It helped a lot. It requires attention. It made me very happy to produce electricity.” T.C.5: “Yes, it helped a lot. We made a wind-driven car and solar car with my friends. It was fun to build and this is the first time I’ve produced electricity.” T.C.6: “Yes, it helped a lot. We made our own solar car and produced our own electricity.” Some of the answers to the question which was directed to middle school students, high school students and teacher candidates "What could be the advantages of learning with Lego?" are as follows: M.S.S.1: “I think it would be more fun and more memorable since it is practical.” M.S.S.2: “We would learn while having more fun.” M.S.S.3: “It would stick to people’s mind faster and clearer.” M.S.S.4: "I believe that it would increase our interest in the lesson and make it easy to learn." M.S.S.5: “It would provide practice-oriented, student-centered lesson.” M.S.S.6: “It would be more memorable when we learn while practicing.” M.S.S.7: “Lessons would be more enjoyable and educational.” H.S.S.1: “we would visualize the subject which we learn visually.” H.S.S.2: “lessons would be more entertaining and logical.” H.S.S.3: “everyone would be eager to listen.” H.S.S.4: “we would have more fun in lessons and understand better.” H.S.S.5: “it would develop the ability of creative thinking.” H.S.S.6: “it would be perfect for students like us who are studying in vocational schools. We learn better when we make and learn by ourselves.” T.C.1: “It would provide the lesson to be more fun and practical.” I think every teacher should use in appropriate lessons.” T.C.2: “I believe that Lego would develop the psychomotor abilities of students as well as provide them to learn more memorable.” T.C.3: “Children would learn by practicing-experiencing, thus it would provide them to learn faster and more efficiently.” T.C.4: “My students would learn while having fun.” 165 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey T.C.5: “Teachers would learn while having fun and develop their hand skills.” Some of the answers the participants gave to the question "What could be the disadvantages of teaching with Lego?" which was asked to the participating middle-school students and high-school students and teacher candidates are as follows: T.1: “I don't think it would work very well, but maybe some of our friends might take it out of education and turn it into a game." T.2: "Time might become an issue during lessons." T.3: "It was fun learning with the Renewable Energy Set but when I asked my teacher its price, I found it expensive. I think all children would be able to learn with these tools if they were cheaper." H.S.S.1: “Some students might turn the lesson into play.” H.S.S.2: “Lesson hours would become longer.” H.S.S.3: “Problems would arise if there were not enough sets.” H.S.S.4: “It's a waste of time for students who are not very interested.” T.C.1: “I don't think there would be any disadvantage if the implementation was done in a planned and organized way.” T.C.2: “I don't think there would be a disadvantage, however, I think the fact that not every school has these sets is already a disadvantage for some.” Some of the answers given to the question "What would you think about the idea of appropriate lessons being taught with Lego? Would you want this? Why?" which was asked to the participating middle-school and highschool students are as follows: M.S.S.1: “I think it would be a more fun, more catchy, and more efficient learning experience because it would be applied training." M.S.S.2: “I think that being pulled out of the parrot fashion of our education system and learning by trying and applying would be more fun, more memorable, and more efficient for us students." M.S.S.3: “It would allow us children to understand the lesson better and not get bored during classes.” M.S.S.4: “We get bored and worn out a lot in classes and don't understand the lesson. But with this system, classes would become fun, we would not get bored and understand the lessons well." H.S.S.1: “Yes, I would want that, I think Lego being used in classes would be nice and fun.” H.S.S.2: “I think it would be very fun. I would want that because we would understand the lesson easily.” H.S.S.3: “No, class hours would get longer.” H.S.S.4: “I would want that, I think classes would be more productive.” H.S.S.5: “I would want it but only if we get to perform applications with the materials as well.” H.S.S.6: “I think I would struggle with it, that's why I wouldn't want that.” All participants replied to the question "Would you consider using the Lego® Renewable Energy Set while teaching the renewable energy sources subject in your current or future teaching profession? Why?" which was asked to teacher candidates and teachers in the study as "yes, I would" and some of the answers are as follows: T.C.1: "Yes I would. It is very practical, fun, and a do-it-yourself, find-it-yourself type of activity. It is a very nice practice aimed to teach the subject to students as well as possible. There would be no problem at all as long as you allocate enough time." T.C.2: "I would. Because learning while having a fun time would be easier." T.C.4: "I certainly would, I think it would enable students to learn easier. It would make the learning process more active." T.C.5: "I would very much like to use it, but I think its cost is too much, not every school might be able to get it." T.C.6: "I would. Children would obtain knowledge that is more permanent as they do the applications themselves. However, we might struggle in terms of cost." T.C.7: "I certainly would. It improves dexterity, allows for group work, and provides learning by experience." T.C.8: "Yes I would. Because it is very fun and educating. Children having fun while learning allows the knowledge they obtain to be more permanent." T.C.9: "I would. Children are the future. Our future depends on their upbringing. The earth being more livable is related to the further use of renewable energy sources." 166 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey T.2: “Yes, the usage of practice instead of verbal lessons provides a more permanent learning experience.” T.4: “I would, of course, if I had the material.” T.5: “Yes, I would, because I think Lego would arouse curiosity and lead to a more permanent learning experience.” T.6: “I'm thinking of using Lego to carry out learning by observing and experiencing.” T.8: “I would, I think that students' motivation and interest in the lesson would increase.” T.9: “Yes I would, students learn faster when they produce and the information becomes permanent.” T.10: “I would certainly use it if I had access to it.” T.12: “I certainly would, it would be a very lasting learning experience for the child to see that energy is generated from the wind by using the wind rose model that he/she made.” 95% of the teacher candidates and all of the teachers gave the answer "Yes, I would" to the question "Would you have liked to have a robotics-based class during your undergraduate education? Why?" which was asked to the participating teacher candidates and teachers. Some of the answers the teacher candidates and teachers gave are as follows: T.C.1: "Yes. I would like to improve myself on different aspects and learn the different materials and teaching techniques in my future teaching career. I would like to be an unorthodox teacher. Robotics-based education would contribute to my academic success positively." T.C.2: "I would. I would be knowledgeable in this sense too and become a more beneficial teacher to students." T.C.3: "I would. I am sure that the education I would receive from robotics-based classes would be more permanent." T.C.4: "I certainly would. I would like to digress from the monotonous lecturing and learn by practicing." T.C.5: "I would like it a lot. Because I had fun while learning and produced an output in the application we did and this made me very happy." T.C-6/7: "I would. We learned by having fun. I both had fun and learned." T.C.8: "Yes, I would. Both to improve myself and to give my students this kind of education." T.1: “Yes, I would, I have to learn to teach.” T.2: “I would like it a lot, I think it would be very beneficial.” T.3: “I certainly would, it is time to abandon classic methods in order for us to switch to a technological education system.” T.4: “Yes, because if we had a robotics-based class during my undergraduate education, my students would be able to experience a more active education with me.” T.5: “Yes, because I feel like a stranger to these activities at the moment.” T.6: “I certainly would but our different responsibilities at school limit our time allocation in this period of time. Also, everything would be better when it is learned in its place and time.” T.7: “Yes I would, I wouldn't want to learn about robotics this late. We can get to children easier if we understand them. Dealing with Lego is something they like to do and I could have been using it to make them gain acquisitions for a long time.” Discussion and Conclusions In the study, the opinions of the participants consisting of middle-school students, high school students, science teacher candidates and science teachers on robotics-based applications and the teaching of the renewable energy sources subject were examined. The participants in the study stated that the Lego Renewable Energy Set was very beneficial in the education of the renewable energy sources subject. Thus, it is seen that the use of technology in education produces positive outcomes. The participants in the study stated that the usage of Lego in teaching had advantages in terms of learning more memorable, learning while having fun, participating in group work, learning by experience, and students being more enthusiastic about lessons. The teacher candidates and teachers stated that they would consider using the Lego Renewable Energy Set while teaching the renewable energy sources subject. Also, the majority of the teacher candidates and teachers stated that they would have like to have a robotics-based class during their undergraduate education. On the other hand, participants expressed the disadvantages of teaching with Lego as it takes too much time, there aren’t enough sets, it is difficult to practice in crowded classrooms, sets being expensive and they cannot keep up with the curriculum since they have a curriculum to execute. In the study conducted by Cüre and Özdener (2008), teachers believe that developing technology makes learning easier, increases the success of student and teacher, draws the attention of students and technological practices are 167 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey necessary for a more effective education, however, it is revealed that teachers also think it is difficult to benefit from technology in crowded classrooms and using it will increase their responsibilities. Kuşkaya Mumcu, Koçak Usluel (2004) have determined that according to teachers, insufficient budget possibilities, which is the leading factor that prevents technology to be used in education plays an important role in both providing access to technology and the sustainability of technology. References Atmatzidou, S., Markelis, I., & Demetriadis, S. (2008, November). 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Bartın Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 6(2), 497-515. Özdoğru, E. (2013). The Effect of Lego Programme Based Science and Technology Education on the Students’ Academic Achievement, Science Process Skills and Their Attitudes Toward Science and Technology Course for Physical Facts Learning Field. Master's Thesis, Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir. Shimada, M., Kanda, T. & Koizumi, S. (2012). How can a Social Robot facilitate children’s collaboration? Social Robotics, 98-107. Smith, M.L. (2013). A case study: Motivational attributes of 4-h participants engaged in robotics. Doctoral dissertation, Mississippi State University, Mississippi, USA. Sullivan, F. R. (2008). Robotics and science literacy: Thinking skills, science process skills and systems understanding. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45(3), 373-394. Üçgül, M. (2013). History and Educational Potential of LEGO Mindstorms NXT, Mersin University Journal of the Faculty of Education, Vol. 9, Issue 2, August 2013, pp.127-137. 168 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Author Information Sibel Acisli Artvin Çoruh Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi, Temel Eğitim Bölümü, Sınıf Eğitimi Ana Bilim Dalı, Artvin / Turkey Contact E-mail: sacisli@artvin.edu.tr 169 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 170-176 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Legibility of Neighborhood Park: A Case Study of Trabzon City Centre Doruk Gorkem OZKAN Karadeniz Technical University Abdullah CIGDEM Karadeniz Technical University Duygu AKYOL Karadeniz Technical University Abstract: The growing need for housing in parallel with population growth has made the importance of open spaces more prominent in rapidly growing cities. Among them, urban parks and management for open spaces are one of the important parts of urban planning. Neighborhood parks are the most basic element of municipal outdoor management systems in particular. The main function of the neighborhood parks is to provide sociocultural interaction facilities that meet user needs, are such as accessibility, legibility, have many functions together and enable the active and passive activities of users. High legibility level, well-designed parks at the neighborhood level serve as a social and activity center for the users, transforming into high-level, living spaces. In this context, interest in the perception and experience of the community, neighborhood parks has reached a very important point today. Today, however, research continues to seek answers to the question of how people react to and use parks in their living environment. One of the concepts that has recently become the focal point in this regard is the concept of legibility. In this context, this study aimed to reveal the legibility level of three parks randomly selected from the neighborhood parks located in Ortahisar district of Trabzon province and completed in 2017. In this direction, the legibility level and the physical and characteristic features and activities of the neighborhood parks were examined in this study, and their suitability and deficiencies for landscape design and usage were determined. As a result of the research, it was determined that the legibility level of the examined neighborhood parks is low and the usage level of the parks is low, resulting in inanimate spaces and suggestions for improvement of these parks are presented. Keywords: Open spaces, Neighbourhood parks, Legibility, Structural equation modeling Introduction Currently, the increasing need for housing, rapid and unplanned urbanization apparently indicate the significance of open public spaces. Along with the escalating urban density in city centers, the open spaces are becoming inadequate and the requirement for these areas increase. Open public spaces vary in dimension, form and the functions they provide. Open public spaces generally vary with respect to being in a neighborhood, in a city or being a regional open space. Open public spaces are regarded as a common ground for establishing a better quality of life regarding the physical and social characteristics they offer (Montgomery, 2013). Neighborhoods, which could be accepted as the most basic constituents of cities, are the most intensely affected units from the reduction of open spaces. Besides being the centers that facilitate the foundation and development of cultures, neighborhoods also refer to the spaces of inhabitance. Along with the concept of inhabitance, neighborhoods have a sense of social structure and acted as the facilitator of social organization throughout the history. Ongoing urban transformation efforts in Turkey caused spatial and social discriminations on neighborhood scale. The open spaces neighborhoods provided are gradually diminishing and this problem adversely affects the neighborhood inhabitants in terms of their satisfaction levels with their living environments. Interventions towards the physical and social characteristics of neighborhoods cause problems such as alienation and lack of communication, thus, the neighborhoods become places where feeling of - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey community cannot be formed. Therefore, it is highly significant to emphasize the concept of open spaces within the neighborhood scale. Neighborhood Parks Neighborhood parks should be taken into consideration as a priority, along with the other open spaces of the city. Neighborhood parks provide outdoor spaces that the users could experience various interactions and share interests (Gehl & Svarre, 2013). Inhabitants of the urban and neighborhood contexts usually prefer neighborhood parks, which could as well be expressed as the nearest breathing spaces, in order to satisfy their needs of recreation, to take a relief from the tiredness of the day, to relax and to fulfill their needs regarding socializing. Here, one of the issues that should be emphasized as a priority is understanding whether the neighborhood parks are preferred or not. Accordingly, it would be reasonable to take the perception, attitude, and evaluations of the individuals towards their living environment into consideration. In general terms, social spaces, which are within the scope of open spaces, are shaped according to the requirements of different age groups. In areas such as neighborhood parks, it is highly significant to consider the requirements of age groups such as children and adults (Düzenli & Özkan, 2016). Neighborhood parks, which could be referred as the spine of park systems, should accommodate various activities for the users and should comprise a variety of characteristics, such as accessibility, legibility etc. that meet the user requirements. Neighborhood parks should allow active and passive activities and provide spatial characteristics for sitting, resting, relaxing, getting into interaction, getting acquainted, and distancing oneself away from city life (Moulay & Ujang 2016). Studies conducted in recent years established that there exists alienation, lack of social interaction and communication in urban areas. In this respect, spaces with high legibility, which promote outdoor activities, enable social interaction and render the landscape elements easily identifiable, are considered important, especially for neighborhood parks. The objective of the present study is to discuss the concept of legibility, as one of the basic features of effective open spaces, within the context of neighborhood parks. Therefore, prior to describing the research method employed in the present study, it is essential to explain the concept of legibility and its significance in terms of neighborhood parks. Legibility and Legibility Perception Legibility, which could in general be provided through an effective open space design, is one of the key features directly related to the utilization and recognition of a park. Lynch (1960) defines the concept of legibility as the identifiable and coherent structure of constituents. In their study conducted on the legibility of neighborhood parks, Amine Moulay, Norsidah Ujang and Ismail Said described the concept of legibility as an understandable structure that does not have visual obstructions and that is defined through the qualities of accessibility and indicated that the environments with these characteristics enabled social interaction through increasing confidence in the users through affecting the usability of the space (Moulay, Ujang & Said, 2016). As comprehended from these definitions, legibility, which enables a better accessibility and better-defined features in open spaces in line with the consistency provided through landscape items, is considered as one of the basic features of the effective urban spaces. The concept of legibility, which is one of the urban design principles, expresses the environmental characteristics that enable to create and organize a cognitive map (Herzog and Leverich, 2003). The legibility of an environment corresponds to obtaining the spatial information from the surroundings, shaping this information in the mind, and utilizing it appropriately (Köseoğlu & Erinsel, 2010). According to this definition, legibility consists of the perception of the environmental characteristics of the space. The present study, which was based on the problem that the physical and social characteristics of the neighborhoods were negatively affected by the increasing urban density in city centers, aims to elucidate the sub-dimensions of the concept of legibility in terms of neighborhood parks and the relationship between these sub-dimensions. Material and Methods The present study was conducted in three different neighborhood parks connected to the central district of the Trabzon province in Turkey. In order to reveal the legibility level in neighborhood parks, a survey was conducted with the users of the parks in the Pelitli, Çukurçayır and Aydınlıkevler neighborhoods. The case areas, their location in the city, their sizes and facilities for activity are presented in Table 1. 171 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Within the context of the present study, Moulay and Ujang’s (2016) legibility scale, composed of 14 expressions, was utilized in order to determine the legibility level of the neighborhoods. 90 users participated the survey and responded these 14 expressions through a five-point Likert scale. The participant responses were analyzed with the software SPSS 24.0. Initially, the aim was to determine the sub-dimensions for the scale by using a descriptive factor analysis and consequently the reliability of the scale was established by confirmatory factor analysis. The obtained legibility dimensions and their mean values based on neighborhood parks were scrutinized. Table 1. Location and facilities for activity for the studied neighborhood parks Scale Size Activity Image Opportunities Soğuksu, Neighborhood 7200m2 Sport Muhsin Playground Yazıcıoğlu Relaxing Park Walking Sitting Watching Name Kalkınma Neighborhoo d Park Neighborhood 5653m2 Sport Playground Relaxing Walking Sitting Watching Eating University Neighborhoo d Park Neighborhood 11370m2 Sport Playground Relaxing Walking Sitting Watching Eating Findings Validity and Reliability Analyzes of the Scales Used in the Survey The first part of the questionnaire was intended to reveal how the users of neighborhood parks evaluated the legibility levels of these parks. Table 2 presents the mean values and factor analysis results regarding the legibility of the parks. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) coefficient test was applied to determine whether the data obtained from the users were suitable for factor analysis. The KMO coefficient was determined as 0,686. This result implied that the sample size was adequate for factor analysis and that the data was suitable for factor analysis. The legibility scale composed of 14 expressions was reduced to 11 expressions subsequent to the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and the mean value was determined as 3,36 (Table 2). 172 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 2. Results of the exploratory factor analysis for the legibility scale Factors X Accessibility (Explained Varience:31,369) (α: 0,812) (ac3) People use the park frequently 3,75 (ac1) There are more than one entrance to access the park 3,53 (ac2) Most of the area is suitable for walking 3,85 (ac4) The park is well connected with the residential area 3,34 Visual obstacles (Explained Varience:20,123) (α: 0,841) (cs5) There are many landscape elements 3,40 (cs6) The walkways are very comfortable to use 3,43 (cs3) The location of the park is very convenient 2,87 (cs4) There are many gathering places 3,39 Clear structure (Explained Varience:13,037) (α: 0,836) (vo3) The park has direct views with good ability to see 2,93 (vo4) There are more than one entrance to access the park 3,69 (vo2)The face to face arrangement of the seating allow me to talk with others 2,80 Total Variance (%) 64,529 Factor 0,882 0,869 0,797 0,706 0,780 0,735 0,709 0,700 0,833 0,755 0,734 Three sub-dimensions, which explained the legibility measures of the neighborhood parks according to the participant responses with a resultant 64,529% variance, were determined and were presented in Table 1. According to the results of the analysis, the first factor was “accessibility”. This factor alone constituted 31,369% of the total variance and the Cronbach Alpha value was calculated as 0,812 for this factor. The second factor was determined as “visual obstacles”, and accounted for 20,123% of the total variance, with a Cronbach Alpha value of 0.841. The third factor was “clear structure” and accounted for 13,037% of the total variance and its Cronbach Alpha value was 0,836. Relations Between the Sub-Dimensions of the Perception of Legibility Factor analysis was performed with the SPSS software and the factor structure and factor loads were determined. Yet, it is not possible to examine the model fit and the relationship between latent variables. Nonetheless, it is possible to examine the model fit and the relationship between latent variables through a structural equation modeling, where factor analysis and regression analysis could be used together. Within the scope of the present study, AMOS 20 software was used to determine the model fit and the relationships between the factors, through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The analyses were performed via the Maximum Likelihood method. While testing the fitness between the model and the data for model fit, it could be preferred to use several or all of the goodness-of-fit tests (Schumacker, 2006: 120). The results or the analyses are presented in Table 3. It could be observed that X2/DF had a value of 1,68 (69,274/41), p=,004<.01 and it was in compliance with the standard; the root mean square residual (RMR), goodness-of-fit (GFI), adjusted goodness-of-fit (AGFI) and comparative fit index (CFI) were respectively determined as 0,039, 0,878 0,804, and 0,901, which were either equal or approximate to the value of 0,90 defined by the standard. Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was found as 0,073, which was lower than the standard 0,080 defined for an acceptable goodness-of-fit. Consequently, the goodness-of-fit for the scale was found to be acceptable presenting a better construct validity. Hence, the validity of the legibility scale determined through an exploratory factor analysis was confirmed via the confirmatory factor analysis. Fit index X2 Table 3. Goodness of fit of Neighborhood Park Legibility Scale DF X2/DF RMR GFI AGFI CFI 69,274 41 1,68 0,049 0,878 0,804 0,901 RMSEA 0,073 Table 4 presents the standardized regression weights. The regression values indicate that the observed variables demonstrate the capability in estimating the hidden variables, in other words, the factor loadings. For each pair in Table 3, factor loadings were significant since their “p” values were less than 0.01. These results denote that the items were correctly assigned to the factors. Once the standardized regression weights were scrutinized, it was found that they ranged from 0.511 to 0.873. The values of all indicator variables regarding the regression 173 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey coefficients were quite significant (p: 0,000). The diagram of the model obtained through the confirmatory factor analysis is provided below. Table 4. Non-standardized regression coefficients between the hidden variables and indicator variables in the measurement model Estimate S.E. C.R. P cs5 <--F2Clearstructure 1,000 cs6 <--F2Clearstructure 1,004 ,244 4,120 *** cs3 <--F2Clearstructure ,622 ,176 3,539 *** cs4 <--F2Clearstructure ,786 ,206 3,819 *** vo3 <--F3Visualobstacles 1,000 vo4 <--F3Visualobstacles ,741 ,168 4,399 *** vo2 <--F3Visualobstacles ,684 ,143 4,766 *** ac3 <--F1accessibility 1,000 ac1 <--F1accessibility ,929 ,111 8,344 *** ac2 <--F1accessibility ,867 ,116 7,471 *** ac4 <--F1accessibility ,774 ,125 6,203 *** The diagram of the model obtained through confirmatory factor analysis was presented in Figure 1. Figure 1. CFA Model comprised of 11 items Discussion and Conclusion The concept of legibility in neighborhood parks was assessed via the readability scale of Moulay and Ujang (2017), within the scope of the present study. Due to determining the appropriateness of the 14 legibility scales 174 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey to factor analysis, explanatory factor analysis (EFA) was initially performed in the SPSS 24.0 software. According to the outcomes of this analysis, a three-factor structure was identified and these they were named as visual obstacles, accessibility and clear structure. Consequent to the analysis of factor structure and factor loadings, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed via the AMOS 20 software. With respect to the confirmatory factor analysis, the compliance analysis, which focuses on the fitness of the research model, indicated that the model was well saturated and had a good fit. Such outcome supported the three-factor structure of the concept of legibility and its sub-dimensions, similar to the outcomes presented by Moulay and Ujang (2017). The dissimilarity of the present study was the explanation of the model through 11 expressions, not through 14 expressions. Considering the fact that, in recent years, urban transformation was addressed in the scope of neighborhood transformations in Turkey, the significance of neighborhood parks becomes highly evident. Within the scope of the present study, it was determined that the factor that best explained the perception of legibility in neighborhood parks was the accessibility factor, among the three different spatial characteristics. The other factors were, respectively, clear structure and visual obstacles. This outcome demonstrated that easy accessibility and visibility directly affected the legibility of neighborhood parks. In their studies, which focused on determining the effective service range of neighborhood parks, Kellett and Rofe (2009) and Duncan et al. (2011) stated that the service area radius of the parks was 800 meters and such levels of accessibility was one of the most important factors that defined the utilization of these parks. The outcomes of the present research supported these studies through expressing the significance of accessibility in neighborhood parks. In literature, studies, focusing on this subject, express concepts such as easily identifiability and legibility of landscape elements as one of the fundamental dimensions that affect the liveliness and utilization of the parks. With respect to this statement, especially legibility and the relationship between the social interaction concepts in neighborhood parks, places a greater emphasis on this issue. Social interaction in neighborhood parks is also related to concepts such as a sense of belonging to the neighborhood and a sense of community. Therefore, future studies could focus on the relationship between the concept of legibility in neighborhood parks and concepts such as social interaction, place attachment, and neighborhood attachment. References Duncan, D. T., Aldstadt, J., Whalen, J., Melly, S. J., & Gortmaker, S. L. (2011). Validation of Walk Score® for estimating neighborhood walkability: an analysis of four US metropolitan areas. International journal of environmental research and public health, 8(11), 4160-4179. Düzenli, T., & Özkan, D.G. (2016). Kent Parklarının Yaşlıların Psikososyal Yapısına Bağlı Olarak İncelenmesi. Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 4 (35), 166-183. Gehl, J., & Svarre, B. (2013). How to study public life. Island press. Herzog, T. R., & Leverich, O. L. (2003). Searching for legibility. Environment and Behavior, 35(4), 459-477. Kellett, J. E., & Rofe, M. W. (2009). Creating active communities: how can open and public spaces in urban and suburban environments support active living?: a literature review. Kevin Lynch, The Image of the City, M.I.T. Press, 1960 Köseoğlu, E., & Erinsel Önder, D. (2010). Mekansal okunabilirlik kavramının çözümlenmesi. Montgomery, C. (2013). Happy city, transforming our lives through urban design. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Moulay, A., & Ujang, N. (2016). Legibility of Neighborhood Parks and Its Impact on Social Interaction in a Planned Residential Area. International Journal of Architectural Research: ArchNet-IJAR, 10(1), 184194. Moulay, A., Ujang, N., & Said, I. (2017). Legibility of neighborhood parks as a predicator for enhanced social interaction towards social sustainability. Cities, 61, 58-64. Schumacker Randall E. (2006) “Conducting Specification Searches With Amos”, Structural Equation Modeling, 13(1). 175 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Author Information Doruk Gorkem Ozkan Abdullah Cigdem Karadeniz Technical University, Department of Landscape Architecture, ,61080, Turkey Contact e mail:dorukgorkemozkan@gmail.com Karadeniz Technical University, Department of Landscape Architecture, ,61080, Turkey Duygu Akyol Karadeniz Technical University, Department of Landscape Architecture, ,61080, Turkey 176 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 177-183 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Preparing Flood Victims for Emergency House Evacuation Farhad BALASH Kharazmi University Dayang AVANG HJ HAMID Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Abstract: Remarkable confrontations arose from natural disaster, are considered as the mankind natural reactions. In this study, flood evacuation is treated as the systematic process to react against this nature‟s anger. Unfortunately, little is considered through the qualitative lens to understand human behavior for Emergency House Evacuation (EHE) during the flood. In this study, preparing the residents is examined as to manage their behavior to evacuate their house during a flood. Methodologically, qualitative study is conducted to discover different components of EHE. Thirty-five victims participated as the key informants to reflect the different components of EHE and employing thematic method of analysis to develop and explore the components representing different views of the victims. EHE is seen to comprise three sequential components of predicting (A), controlling (B), and action (C) with nine secondary-level dimensions. These dimensions relating to the predicting are: estimating, discriminating, and timing. Two dimensions relating to the controlling are closing entries and disconnecting utilities. Four dimensions relating to the action are equipping, collecting, recognizing, and leading, respectively. Consequently, timing as one of the dimensions of predicting, is presented as the turning point of the process, which determines the sequence of the EHE process from the sequence of ABC to AC. Evidently, an emerged model of the study is accentuated to use in order to reduce the tension during EHE, which helps the victims to accelerate the process of evacuation at the maximum level of safety and confidence in the imposed situation. Keywords: Flood, Evacuation, Training Introduction Commonly, there are many nations that challenging with flooding as the major concern. Especially, the most vulnerable nations are those facing with permanent rainfalls. In the past years, perhaps due to climate change, heavy floods have been happening all over the world with worrying timekeeping (Magiswary et al, 2010 a). In the US, floods do about $ six billion losses and kill about 140 civilians every year. A 2007 report by the OECD found that coastal flooding alone does some $3 trillion in damage worldwide. Yellow River Valley in China engaged millions of civilians in floods during the last century. Malaysia as one of the tropical countries is not away from this natural catastrophe. Generally, monsoons and atmospheric changes bring the flood in tropical areas. Eight years ago, in Kota Tinggi, Johor, heavy rainfalls brought huge damages for the region, and around 51000 families were affected (Chan, 2006) (Shafie, 2009). The worst tragedy in Malaysia, Johor returns for the mentioned period that propelled several studies to overcome the consequential issue (Chan, 2006) (Shafie, 2009) (Gue &Tan 200) (Gue et al, 2008). According to, Adroit Data Recovery Center (ADRC) in Malaysia from 2004 to 2008, over 330.000 families were affected by flooding. Mostly, studies for flood disaster are limited to the aftermath of flooding for the citizens (Magiswary et al, 2010 a) (Chan, 2006) (Shafie, 2009) (Gue & Tan, 2006) (Gue et al, 2008) (Magiswary et al., 2010 b). Moreover, the focus is on landslide, safety on hill-site, environmental degradation, first aids, and geo-hazard phenomena. Although these areas are important as the needful aspects to support citizens, the basic and initial tangible aspects as the pre-disaster phenomena should be in parallel consideration for researchers. Basically, the anxiety and incapability during flooding can be treated as the consequences of poor preparedness (Magiswaryet al., 2010 b). There are some researchers like Malilay, and Gill (Malilay et al.,1996) (Gill 2014), and world organizations that focused on post-disaster needs assessment. - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey These organizations such as United Nation Development Group (UNDG), The World Bank, United Nations Development Programs (UNDP), Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) International Recovery Platform (IRP), United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), and in Malaysia, which is the target region of this study, Natural Disaster Relief Committee (NDRC) mostly focuses on construction and medical assessment. Among them, little is heard about preparatory measures for emergency house evacuation. There are several studies in line with the importance of evacuation. The researchers in their models and recommendations try to highlight the standing of evacuation due to different natural disaster (Bird, 2009) (Jonstone, 2012) (Haddow, 2017); although, none of them is succeed to present applicable model for this issue. Basically, providing a model for training people during flood emergency evacuation needs to be developed using a dynamics approach. It simulates the acceptance of evacuation orders by the residents under threat; families in the process of evacuation from their houses; and time required for all evacuees to get shelter and safety. The training models can be conceptualized by considering the flooding conditions and the main set of cultural and psychological factors that govern human behaviour during the flood evacuation. The number of family members under the flood danger, the process of evacuation, collecting valuables, flood conditions (precipitation, river elevation, etc.), and different flood warnings and evacuation orders can be included in the EHE models for evacuation. They are connected to the worries that clue to the threat recognition, which prompts evacuation decisions. The main purpose of the EHE model is to enhance the effectiveness of flood emergency evacuation. The model consists of the choices of flood warning method, timing of an evacuation order, coherence of the family, and upstream flooding conditions. Method The orientation of this study is an interpretive approach. The researchers tasked to make sense or interpret the phenomena in terms of interpreting all the sources of data and meaning behind them (Denzin, 1998). The EHE project aims to reveal flood victims‟ perspectives and understandings, particularly with regards to their post-hoc lived experiences in the natural extreme settings. With the role of observers and interviewers, a team of researchers from University Technology Malaysia (UTM) sought data from the environment and lived setting in order to interpret (Schwandt, 2000) the participants‟ experience and perceptions in confrontation with the latest flooding from 15 December 2014 – 3 January 2015. To reach at the better understanding point of the phenomena, the researchers selected the case study design (Miles, 1994) (Stake, 2000) (Punch, 2009). Purposively, a single case was adopted as to get in-depth insights into the concept of EHE in the extremecondition of different flooding areas in Kelantan state. The participants were in a confined boundary of space and time during flooding. The research was conducted within two weeks, in different affected regions, Gumusang, and Kulai Krai. These regions were selected because they are typical reported parts of Kelantan state. The regions have been acknowledged by many sources as the top affected regions among other regions. Thirty-five participants, 11 males and 24 females were interviewed that 60% from Guamusang and 40% of them from Kulai Krai. Respectively, the number and percentage of participants by education were 2 illiterate residents, which were 5.7% from total, 9 at primary level (25.7%), and 24 at secondary level (68.6%). Regarding their age, 57.1% of them under 20, 48.6% between 21-39, 8.6% between 40-59, and 40 % over 60year-old. The data collection of the fieldwork was accomplished over the two weeks, consisting of researchers‟ memos writing, photos and videos taking, and interviews‟ recording. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with all participants where they agreed before their interviews. Partial informal discussions during and researchers‟ discussions about each case were noted as to have complementary sources for validation of the data and clarifying the certain emerged concepts and further opinions from the target group. Regarding key features and the pattern of EHE process in confrontation with extreme flooding, the researchers used thematic analysis. Three key steps of reduction, selection and simplification were employed as to develop the emerging themes and to link them together (Miles, 1994) (Yin, 1994). Ultimately, the main themes and subthemes were constantly compared as to saturate the data. Results and Discussion Four groups of questions asked from the victims about EHE. These questions broke down into several items as to understand the process of EHE. The items for the first group are: 178 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey • • • • • • • • • • • • What were the characteristics of the flood? What were the characteristics of your house/building? If you want to describe yourself in general, what kind of person you are brave, timid, or challenging…? Second and third groups together are listed as: How long did it take between your realization of the disaster and time of evacuation? What was your immediate reaction when you found out that there was a flood near your house? What was your thinking about, during your evacuation? Did you rescue someone during the flood? Were you able to recover your valuables (money, gold, Wallet…) before the flood reached your area? Moreover, the items of the fourth group are itemized as: Which direction did you choose to run to? Was there any other consideration apart from running away from the house? Did you try to sweep away the water entering your house during the flood? Were you trapped in the house? Based on the data, the victims‟ frequent complaints about their psychological shocks during EHE were a justifiable reason to think about the process of EHE. According to Perry and Lindel (2003), human needs dynamic interactions with the environment. Therefore, in the case that human beings are not ready to confront with the environment the psychological shocks are reasonable. The compatibility with the environment in general, and nature in particular, entails the accurate and valid decisions based on the actual needs (Quarantelli, 1995). Based on the data, the first reaction against the flooding is EHE. The researchers found that the ineffective EHE is the main phenomenon of this study as the researchers expected before going to the fieldwork. Fundamentally, to the extent that these people are being on time and optimized, the compatibility with the natural disaster is going to be more feasible. Therefore, training not only have the significant contribution to enhance mankind‟s knowledge and skills, but also have the imperative role to improve efficiency and effectiveness to adapt individuals with the coming problems of the ever-changing nature (Lawler, 2000) (Murray, 2002) (Belzer, 2003) (Guskey, 2003) (Killion, 2007). In order to train the residents and help them to overcome the situation, researchers try to find the main evacuation process in order to find the model to train the individuals. Therefore, three main categories were emerged to complete the process during EHE; namely, predicting, controlling, and action. In other studies, several scholars found other components. For instance, in 1990 Laska (Laska, 1990) mentioned in human decision-making process for evacuation, which is divided into four psychological phases of concern, danger recognition, acceptance, and evacuation decision. Along with Laska (1990), Tobin and Ollenburger (1996) alluded to the Red River Basin evacuation model utilized a structure that divides the process into three phases of concern, danger recognition, and evacuation decision. In another example Simonvic and Ahmad mentioned that in order to be ready to confront disastrous conditions, there are some noticeable needs for the better preparation (Flood Evacuation Emergency Planning Natural Hazards): • • • • Understanding of emergency order processes Understanding of human behavior during the emergency The communication between the community (family member) affected by the authorities of disaster and emergency management Preparedness through simulation, or investigation of „„what-if‟‟ scenarios. Basically, he mentioned to evacuation management, and they counted three main components of prediction, control, and response, which are determined in cultural base. In this study, although there is a similarity of the names of components, but the definitions of each component are different. Based on the data in this study, predicting constitutes from three sequential themes of estimating, discriminating, and timing. These elements help residents measure the approximate level of flood with considering the time and type of flood. A typical excerpt from a 28-year-old victim shows the importance of predicting that he says: “Everything happened by sudden in two hours I was shocked, and I didn‟t know which way I should run and how to lead my family. It would be good to predict the flooding through weather cast or mobile alert.” It is deduced from his statement that residents need to beware of the flooding before entrapping. Generally, in some nations governments put many efforts to mitigate and redirect inevitable floods such as some engineering works and installing advanced computer as to predict with astonishing accuracy where floods will befall and how severe likely to be. 7 179 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Three themes support the concept of predicting, which should be seen in a stepwise order. Estimating, distinguishing, and timing are the themes that are elicited from the data. Regarding the estimating, it is perceived from the participants that there are different ways to estimate the level and time of flooding. Participants mentioned three major ways of estimating such as alarming sensors, media estimation, and traditional estimation. It is emphasized that installed alarming sensors or central alarming to inform the residents to evacuate seems necessary for the residents. Moreover, they emphasized on media role in informing and estimating the flooding. Most of the survived victims indicated in the way that estimates the flood. For instance, one of the 58-year victims expressed: “Before flood I understood the rain will become worse because by our tradition knowledge in our village, we know if the water reaches to the upper part of our legs means we have to evacuate, and it is going to be dangerous.” The above excerpt shows that in local areas that they have experience in flooding, and they have some traditional ways to understand the time and level of flooding. It seems that the transferring these kinds of knowledge can help the residents to estimate the time and level of flooding. Other concepts of predicting are distinguishing and timing. Respectively, distinguishing refers to river elevation and precipitation, which can be predicted as the type of flooding. Albeit, most flood damages are related to humans' interest in living near in river valleys (Malilay,1996). Moreover, the timing is referred to the time that residents should know how long they have time for EHE. Timing includes two themes of the slow and heavy uprising. Usually, slow uprising takes long time to overflow the river to come into the house that sometimes it takes one day. The heavy flooding takes in short time usually reported from one to two hours. Based on the observation and the explanation of participants, researchers came to this conclusion that flooding from river areas different from other areas. Furthermore, the participants mentioned that time management for them was very important to collect their stuff and leading family. Therefore, those areas with the fast uprising could not manage to have effective EHE than those in the areas with slow uprising. Sometimes the problems of timing of evacuation and order of actions, and evacuation process are reported as the main issue (Quarantelli,1977) (IJC, 2000). According to the data analysis, the middle category between predicting and action are controlling. Some of the participants expressed that during the flood, they tried to challenge with the flood to prevent flood coming inside the house and also some emphasized on the electricity problem during flooding. For instance, one of the victims says: “I was disappointing during my challenge with water because I did not know what to do close the entries or collecting the needful stuff, so I made a decision to leave struggling and to find the valuable but there was no electricity to find the documents. I was under stressful situation to manage the priority.” By considering all the points from participants like the above excerpt the researchers come up with the controlling as the concept to support their perceptions. Categorically, controlling founds from two sequential themes of closing entries and disconnecting utilities. These elements assist the people to control the aftereffects. In order to control the aftermath disaster the residents during a flood should try to close the entries such as windows and backdoor. Moreover, as to prevent damages from electrical devices and gas, it is offered to disconnect the main electricity fuses and closes the gas flow. The last but not least category is action, which is located at the end of the EHE process. Normally, the control and predict of behaviors during an emergency is not easy. The experiences of flood evacuation show various problems from happening chaos (IJC, 2000) (Morris,1997). Based on the data, there are some sequential actions that can help residents to evacuate their house after considering the predicating and controlling stage. These sequential actions are equipping, collecting, recognizing, and leading, respectively. Regarding equipping, the leader of the family should control the family members to wear their safety jackets as an imperative stuff to help them. The next theme after equipping is collecting. Frequently, the victims complained about the situations that after flooding they entrapped, and they could not reach for the food and water that helicopters sent for them and sometimes they needed rope to help others. Additionally, they mentioned to the darkness at night in everywhere and need light to find their ways. Moreover, in some cases they mentioned to the difficulty for their valuables and documents. For instance, one 45-year lady expressed: 180 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey “It was difficult situation I didn‟t know what to collect on that moments: my kids, water, money, or our ID cards. I just took my ID cards and available documents, but unfortunately all the docs became wet and dirty.” It is realized from her excerpt that residents at the time of EHE, they don‟t have enough concentration to collect their basic stuffs. Therefore, the researchers come up with the term, collecting as the item refers to pick up the prepared backpack, which is contained plastic-covered documents, spare keys, valuables, dried snacks, torch, rope, and water. Last two themes are related to recognizing and leading. Regarding leading residents should recognize which exit door is the best way to exit and try to choose the safe door and after exit choose the best way. According to data from participants at the time of evacuation family members, all are under mental pressure. In some cases, the kids fell down and hurt during final stage of evacuation. Based on the informal discussions with some participants, the researcher came at the point that it is instructive to lead the family with pre-trained practices. At this stage of EHE the leader of the house stays in front of the family members and one of the elder family member stays at the end of members‟ chain. The links and interrelations among all mentioned categories and themes are shown in (Figure 1). Figure 1. EHE process model It is construed from the above figure that the evacuation process is treated as the systemic process of predicting, controlling, and action. This dynamics system is based on the theory of feedback processes (Sterman, 2000). A feedback system is induced by the contingent situation and behavior. This system has a closed-loop structure that brings results from later actions of the system that refers to control future actions. One class of feedback loops seeks a goal and responds as a consequence of changes to achieve the goal. Hereby, in the elicited grounded model at the predicting stage, estimating, discriminating and timing can help the residents to prepare themselves for EHE. The critical item in predicting stage is, timing, which can be presented as the turning point of the process. Timing determines the sequence of the EHE process from the chain of predicting-controllingaction to the short sequence of predicting-action. The reason refers to the speed of water uprising. In the case of slow uprising, there is an ample time to go through the controlling stage such as closing entries and disconnecting utilities; therefore, the whole process is going to be run step by step. However, In the case of slow 181 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey uprising, there is an ample time to go through the controlling stage such as closing entries and disconnecting utilities. Therefore, all the process is going to be run step by step. However, in the case of fast uprising, there is not enough time for residents to do the controlling stage, and it is suggested to skip the controlling stage and start the sequences of action stage such as equipping, collecting, recognizing, and leading. Conclusion Malaysia is in an urgent situation to settle the problem of flood as soon as possible; therefore, providing the precaution services and training program for people with high-risk areas seems necessary as to make them ready to confront with the flooding. Based on the reports, EHE is the initial action of people in flooding condition. Different activities are presented as the needful measures to prepare the residents. These activities include predicting, controlling, and action. In the first, predicting covers estimating, determining, and timing. These three sequential elements help the residents to predict the type and the time of flooding. Next, controlling which consists of two stages of closing entries, and disconnecting utilities. Finally, the process continues with action, which comprises four elements of equipping, collecting, recognizing, and leading, respectively. The interactions and interfaces of all finding factors come into the specific action in confrontation with diverse extreme conditions. On balance, this study also reveals the results in terms of conceptualizing the model of EHE. Ultimately, preventive measures such as prerequisite equipment and certain diet are highlighted to reduce the aftermaths of flooding. Briefly, it is suggested the government invests to provide the comprehensive learning programs for the people in high risk areas. The range of these programs could be covered from the schools to official media such as TV channels and radios. It is recommended that animators and computer programmers plan to provide attractive and hi-tech programmes as to internalize the process of EHE. Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance from Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia (under Prototype Research Grant Scheme-Vot Registration Numbers: PY/2015/04476, R.J130000.7809.4L645), UTM Research management Centre (RMC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia as well as Sports Innovation & Technology Centre (SITC), Institute of Human Centered Engineering (IHCE), Bioscience & Medical Engineering Faculty, UTM in providing the facilities for this research. References ADRC, (2015). Adroit Data Recovery Center, Retrieved from http://www.adrc.com.my/ on 1st Feb 2015. Belzer, A., (2003). Toward Broadening the Definition of Impact in Professional Development for ABE Practitioners, Adult Basic Education, 13, 1, 44-59. Bird, D.K., Gisladottir, G., Dominey-Howes, D., (2009). Resident perception of volcanic hazards and evacuation procedures. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 9, 1, 251-266. Chan, N. W., (2006). Increasing Flood risk in Malaysia: causes and solutions, Disaster Prevention and Management, 6, 2, 72-86. Denzin, N. K., Lincoln, Y.S., (1998). The Landscape of Qualitative Research, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks. Flood Evacuation Emergency Planning Natural Hazards, 34, 25–51. Gill, S. P. D., (2014). Joining Global Effort in Post- Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction the Post-Disasater Needs Assessment Process, The World Bank, GFDRR Labs. Gue, S. S., Tan, Y. C., (2006). Landslides: Case Histories, Lesson Learned and Mitigation Measures, Conference on Land Slide, Sinkhole, Structure Failure: MYTH or SCIENCE?, Ipoh Perak. Gue, S. S., Karnawati, D., Wong, S. Y., (2008). Policy and Institutional and Framework for landslide Mitigation and Risk Reduction, First World Landslide Forum, Tokyo Japan. Guskey, T. R., (2003). The Characteristics of Effective Professional Development: A Synthesis of Lists,ERIC. Haddow, G. D., Bulock, J. A., Coppola, D. P., (2017). Introduction to Emergency Management, Six Edition. BH. IJC (International Joint Commission)., (2000). The next flood: Getting prepared, Final Report of the Red River Basin Task Force, 164, Ottawa Washington. 182 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Jonstone, W. M., Lence, B. J., (2012). Use of Flood, Loss, and Evacuation Models to Assess Exposure and Improve a Community Tsunami Response Plan: Vancouver Island. Natural Hazards Review, 13, 2, 8598. Killion, J., (2007). Assessing impact: Evaluating staff development, Corwin Press. Laska, S. B., (1990). Homeowner adaptation to flooding, An application of the general hazards coping theory, Environ. Behav. 22,3, 320–357. Lawler, P. A., King, K. P., (2000). Planning for Effective Faculty Development: Using Adult Learning Strategies, Krieger Publishing, Malabar FL. Magiswary, D., Murali, R., Saravanan. M., Maniam, K., (2010 b). Recent Advances in Management, Marketing, Finance, 19-30. Magiswary, D., Murali, R., Saravanan, M., Maniam, K., (2010 a). ICT and Disaster Preparedness in Malaysia: An Exploratory Study, WSEAS Transactions on Information Science and Application, 5, 7, 735-748. Malilay, J., Flanders, W. D., Brogan, D., (1996). A modified cluster-sampling method for post-disaster rapid assessment of needs, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 74, 4, 399-405. Miles, M.B., Huberman, A.M., (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis, 2nd ed., Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks. Morris-Oswald, M., Simonovic, S. P., (1997). Assessment of the social impact of flooding for use in flood management in the Red River Basin, Report Prepared for the International Joint Commission, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 73. Murray, J. P., (2002). The Current State of Faculty Development in Two Year Colleges, New Directions for Community Colleges, 118, 89-98. Perry, R. W., Lindell, M. K., (2003). 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Authors Information Farhad Balash Dayang Avang Hj Hamid Institute of Educational, Psychological, and Social Research, Kharazmi University Tehran / Iran Contact E-mail: efarhaddevelopment@gmail.com Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, UTM Johor Bahru, Malaysia 183 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 184-191 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Urban Streets from the Perspetive of the Youth Tugba DUZENLI Karadeniz Technical University Sema MUMCU Karadeniz Technical University Elif Merve ALPAK Karadeniz Technical University Abstract: The success of urban open spaces is relative to their ability to address the needs of different user groups. Thus, open urban spaces should be designed in consideration of different needs of different user groups. Young individuals are among important users whose needs need to be identified, and their spatial use is different from the rest of the society. In everyday life, streets are significant spaces for young individuals and are effective on their development. Young individuals consider streets are spaces where they contact others. Thus, the present study aimed to scrutinize the streets in urban area based on their use by young individuals. The 4 most intensely occupied streets in Trabzon, Maraş Street, Kunduracılar Street, Uzunsokak and Tanjant Street were examined in the present study. Behavioral observations were conducted on these streets in the study and which spatial elements were used by young individuals and intended use of these elements were determined. In other words, the facilities that these streets offer to young individuals were identified. In the study 246 young individuals were observed and the findings demonstrated that these individuals utilized the street pavement, walls, curbs, benches and shop fronts to conduct activities such as chatting, sitting, leisure, hanging out and spending time with friends. Keywords: Urban streets, Youth, Spatial elements Introduction Urban user groups can be classified in different ways. For example, children, youth, and adults are user groups whose needs need to be identified (Düzenli et al., 2016a). Research on the spaces that young individuals utilize are limited. Thus, the personal experiences of youth (emotional, social and physical) are neglected. Today’s young individuals are future managers and decision makers, thus their preferences, interests and information about their environmental attitudes should be recognized. Knowledge on the youth’s ideas, perceptions and emotions is important. Generally, social spaces are designed based on the demands of other age groups such as children and adults. However, neglecting young individuals is a significant problem in environmental planning (Owens, 1994; Bredow, 2006). Young individuals are considered invisible in urban areas, "symbolic spaces" are built around their homes and schools, and their desires and needs are ignored (Utne, 1994). However, social spaces are important for young individuals. Street is among the most important spaces in the lives of young individuals. In daily urban life, the street is very important for young individuals and it is effective on their development (Düzenli et al., 2012; Düzenli et al., 2016b). The streets are considered as spaces that allows individuals to contact others. What types of flexible environments can be designed to improve the sense of security, decision making and executive strategies among young individuals? In order to start to design such spaces, it is necessary to understand the perceptual and physical development process. It is important to determine the methods that would allow the development of spaces for young individuals. Previous studies demonstrated that young individuals use the space around them differently when compared to the general public. This is due to the differences in environmental preferences of young individuals. These - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey preferences and differences should be reflected in designs (Düzenli et al., 2017a; Düzenli et al., 2017b). In urban open space design, the benefits of these spaces for young individuals should be considered. For young individuals, increase in their involvement with the environment, socialization opportunities with their peers and other social groups, developing skills, participating in activities to solve problems are important (Düzenli et al., 2010; Versteeg, 2003). Adequate urban open spaces and activities that take the psychological and social needs of young individuals into account can ease their difficult living conditions and assist them to adapt to the environment, rendering the city more habitable for young individuals. Psychosocially comfortable and happy young individuals could have a more positive approach and be motivated towards their environment, lives and classes. Thus, the psychosocial needs of young individuals and the outdoor activities that could meet these needs and how these activities could be reflected in the environment should be determined. In recent years, the use of urban spaces by young individuals in urban centers and neighborhood units has become increasingly unfavorable and disturbing. The use of public space by young individuals is considered as a threat to the personal safety of others and the public order on the streets. Furthermore, young people are increasingly considered "out of design/planning" in public spaces. Owens (1994) argues that young people should be included in these designs to transform these spaces into an "in-design" environment. The present study aimed to determine the issues that should be considered when planning beneficial urban open spaces for young individuals. An attempt was made to determine the needs of young individuals, their demands and the relationship between these demands and urban open spaces. Such studies are very important since young individuals are generally excluded from the process of urban design and planning in history and young individuals were usually not included in the definition of "people". However, the quality of the urban and social structure affects the lives of young individuals. The features of the physical environment indirectly affect the personal development of young individuals due to the activities that these features facilitate. Because, young individuals could express themselves or could not express themselves due to the availability/unavailability of certain activities in that particular space. Thus, opportunities that a particular space would provide for young individuals should be considered when designing spaces for youth. Affordance Theory and the Youth Gibson's (1979) concept of affordance and behavior-milieu synomorphy are two closely related concepts that supplement each other. In the case of outdoor spaces, it is more difficult to encounter a program that is always repetitive or with very specific limits like in indoor spaces. However, the facilities that are called the inviting qualities of the space are important in outdoor spaces. Spaces should provide certain facilities for young individuals to develop strong psychosocial structures, to establish positive social relations, to adapt to the environment, to achieve freedom and to become healthy individuals who have completed their social and personal development in the future. Literature review would demonstrate that socialization, chatting, spending time with peers and availability of diverse activities are important for these achievements based on the psychosocial structure of young individuals (Bredow, 2006; Büküşoğlu and Bayturan, 2005; Driskell, 2002; Hartup, 1992; Kaplan, 1995; Owens, 1994). In brief, spaces create an environment for the activities that the facilities provided by spaces, and young individuals participate in these activities and improve their psychosocial structure. Thus, the baseline of the present study included the question "How can a more beneficial and habitable urban environment be created for development of young individuals?" The study attempted to determine the significance of open urban spaces for young individuals. Material and Method The study areas included the four busiest streets in the city center, namely Uzun street, Maras street, Kunduracılar street, and Tanjant street (Figure 1, Table 1). Uzun street is the area where the urban bookstores, movie theaters, cafeterias, shops, used by the students extensively. Maraş street is a commercial center with high traffic and includes branches of all banks and business offices, and its connections with other streets are suitable for pedestrian focus. Kunduracılar street is a 185 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey pedestrian commercial area where clothing, jewelry and handicraft stores are dominant. It is mostly used for shopping and sightseeing. It has connections with artistic streets. Despite heavy traffic, Tanjant street has large, spacious pedestrian walkways and cafes and restaurants that are used extensively by young individuals Kunduracılar street Maraş street Uzun street Tanjant street Figure 1. Study Area Behavioral Observations The present study aimed to examine the urban streets that differ in terms of available opportunities, based on the activities conducted by young individuals. The study aimed to compare the street components and elements based on the use of young individuals. Several researchers (Lang, 1987; Studer, 1969; Craik, 1970; Michelson, 1975; Barker, 1968; Hart and Fagley, 1995) indicated that observation is an effective technique in understanding human needs, preferences and investigating human behavior. This technique is quite powerful since it records the behavior in its actual state and at the time of its occurrence. In behavioral observation, recording the time, observer and observation are important. Video recordings can be slowed down to count large number of people, and the actions they performed can be distinguished. Observation categories can be defined and observed with certainty, which is not possible in live observation. Time-lapse video recordings are therefore quite successful. Thus, this technique was preferred in order to determine the opportunities that the streets offer to young individuals. The four streets located in Trabzon urban center were recorded for a total of 3 days during weekdays and weekends without precipitation. May was preferred due to weather conditions and availability of open space facilities. Observations were conducted between 12: 00-13: 25 and 18: 00-19: 25, thus, the recordings were made twice daily. This was due to the fact that young individuals are on lunch break and out of school at these time periods. At these times, the streets reach the highest usage levels. The busiest hours were selected to detect maximum behavior volume. Recordings were made for 10 minutes at 15 minute intervals at the observation locations (Table 2). 186 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 1. Street plans of the observed spaces TRABZON KUNDURACILAR STREET TRABZON MARAŞ STREET TRABZON UZUN STREET TRABZON TANJANT STREET Table 2. Observation record samples 187 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Findings After the observations were recorded, the records were viewed, divided into separate records, and the young individuals and the spatial elements they utilized were counted and the percentage of use was determined.Observations demonstrated that out of 246 young individuals (136 male and 110 female individuals) observed on campus open spaces,  36.3% conducted activities using the walls,  21.1% i conducted activities using the furniture,  21% conducted activities using the pavement,  11.2% conducted activities using the curbs,  10.4% conducted activities standing, especially at store fronts. The χ 2 test conducted on the abovementioned distribution demonstrated statistical significance. (χ 2 = 1320.357; 2 df, p<0,01). Then the video images were screened to determine which spatial elements were used by young individuals to conduct which activities, and which element afforded which activity (Table 3 and 4). When the observations were analyzed, it was found that the young individuals utilized  THE WALLS for activities such as sitting, reposing, chatting with friends, socialization, waiting, and talking on the phone; in other words, the walls provided opportunities for the above-mentioned activities;  THE FURNITURE for activities such as jumping, laying down, reading books, sitting, chatting with friends, listening to music, playing guitar and lyre, talking on the phone and eating and drinking; in other words, the furniture provided opportunities for the above-mentioned activities;  THE PAVEMENT for activities such as waiting, chatting with friends and socialization; in other words, the pavement provided opportunities for the above-mentioned activities;  THE CURBS for activities such as sitting, resting, convesation, watching, and talking on the phone; in other words, the curbs provided opportunities for the above-mentioned activities;  THE STORE FRONTS for activities such as chatting friends while standing, hanging out, and waiting; in other words, the store fronts provided opportunities for the above-mentioned activities. Table 3. Analysis of the facilities available on Kunduracılar and Maraş streets Youth activities on Kunduracılar street Chatting with friends Sample youth behavior Chatting-waiting for Friends FACILITIES Youth activities on Maraş street 188 Store front Store wall FACILITIES International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Sample youth behavior Curb RestingSitting FACILITIES Pavement Chatting with friends FACILITIES Discussion and Conclusion This study was initiated with questions about the features that should be considered in planning useful urban open spaces, especially streets for young individuals, and was conducted to determine how young individuals utilize the streets, and which elements they utilize for various needs. In the study, how young individuals utilize the streets was investigated. According to Piko and Vazsony (2004), spaces adequately designed for young individuals help them to socialize and share information, build relationships, develop their in-group personality and belongingness (Iso-Ahola and Crowley, 1991; Hultsman and Harper, 1992). Flitzgerald (1995) demonstrated that young individuals are most interested in passive but socializing activities. In that study conducted with 15-16 year old teenagers, it was determined that hanging out with friends was the most preferred activity. Culp (1998) also found that friendships relations were a strong determinant in a study conducted with 12-17 years old female students. Findings of the present study was consistent with above-mentioned studies. It was observed that young individuals spent most of their time with friends on the streets. It was determined that young individuals utilized mostly the walls on the streets, and furniture, curbs and pavements provide facilities for several activities conducted by young individuals. Furthermore, young individuals also conducted several activities when standing at store fronts. 189 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 4. Analysis of the facilities available on Uzun and Tanjant streets Youth activities on Uzun street Chatting with friends Sample youth behavior Mall front FACILITIES Chatting with friends Pavement FACILITIES Youth activities on Tanjant street Wall Sample youth behavior Chatting while standing FACILITIES Sitting-chatting with friends Benches FACILITIES Because young individuals prefer spaces where they can meet with their friends away from home and adults. Street corners and malls became spaces where young individuals can meet and form their identity. Young individuals create their own spaces in their environment. They have specific uses for the space away from the adults. For example, they meet in front of malls and chat with each other, showing their new clothes and hairstyle (Owens, 1994). This finding supports the present study results. In conclusion, future urban spaces should include spatial elements such as the walls, curbs, sidewalks, etc. that would allow young individuals to spend time together on the streets. References Barker, R. G. (1968). Ecological psychology: Concepts and methods for studying the environment of human behavior. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press Bredow, K.W. (2006). Gathering spaces: Designing places for adolescents, faculty of the Virginia polytechnic institute and state university. Master of Landscape Architecture. Büküşoğlu, N. & Bayturan A.F. (2005). Serbest zaman etkinliklerinin gençlerin psiko-sosyal durumlarına ilişkin algısı üzerindeki rolü (The role of leısure tıme actıvıtıes on the concept related to the psycho - socıal development of the youth). Ege Tıp Dergisi, 44, 3,173 - 177. 190 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Culp, R. H. (1998). Adolescent girls and outdoor recreation: A case study examining constraints and effective programming. Journal of Leisure Research, 30(3), 356. Driskell, D. (2002). Creating better cities with children and youth. Unesco. Düzenli T., Mumcu S. & Özdemir I. B., (2016a). Gençlerin ihtiyaçlarına bağlı olarak kamüus açık mekan Tasarımı, İnönü Üniversitesi Sanat Ve Tasarım Dergisi, 6, 121-130. Düzenli T., Mumcu, S.,Yılmaz S. & Özbilen A. (2012). Analyzing youth’s activity patterns in campus open spaces depending on their personal and social needs, Journal of Adult Development 19(4):201-214. Düzenli T., Yilmaz S. & Var M. (2016b). Gençlere yönelik peyzaj tasarımı: Trabzon Haluk Ulusoy spor tesisleri, İnönü Üniversitesi Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, 6, No.14, 1-15. Düzenli, T., Alpak, E. M., & Özbilen, A. (2017a). Gençlerin kampüs açık mekân kullanımlarına mekânsal özelliklerin etkisi: KTÜ Kanuni Kampüsü örneği. Journal of Human Sciences, 14(3), 2417-2435. doi:10.14687/jhs.v14i3.4661 Düzenli, T., Bayramoğlu, E. & Özbilen, A (2010). Needs and preferences of adolescent in open urban spaces. Scientific Research and Essay 5(2):201-216. Düzenli, T., Mumcu S. & Akyol, D. (2017b). Üniversite kampüsü açık mekânlarının gençler tarafından kullanım amaçlarının belirlenmesi, The Journal of International Social Research, 10,766-772. Gibson, J.J., (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Hart, D. & Fegley, S. (1995). Prosocial Behavior and Caring in Adolescence: Relations to Self-understanding and Social Judgment. Child Development, 66, 1346-1359. Hartup, W. W. (1992). Having friends, making friends and keeping friends: Relationships as educational contexts. ERIC Digest ED345854. Hultsman, J. & Harper, W. (1992). Interpreting leisure as text: the part. Leisure Studies, 11(2), 135-146. Iso-Ahola, S.E. & Crowley, B.D. (1991). Adolescent substance abuse and leisure boredom. Journal of Leisure Research. 23. (3). pp.260-271. Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: toward an integrative framework, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169-182. Lang, J. (1987). Creating architectural theory; The role of the behavioural sciences in environmental design. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Michelson, W. (1977). Environmental choice, human behavior and residential satisfaction. New York: Oxford University Press. Owens, P.E. (1994). Teen Places in Sunshine, Australia: Then and Now, Landscape Architecture Department of Environmental Design, University of California. Children’s Environments, 11, 4. Piko B.F. & Vazsonyi, A.T. (2004). Leisure Activities and Problem Behaviours Among Hungarian Youth, Journal of Adolescense. 27, 717-73. Studer R. G. (1969). The dynamics of behavior-contingent physical systems. In G. Broadbent G. &A. Ward (Eds.), Design methods in architecture. Architectural Association Paper Number 4 (pp.55-70). New York: George Wittenberg. Utne, E. (1994). Are you grown-up yet? Utne Reader, 64 (July/ August), 2. Versteeg, E. (2003). Planning and Design of Open Space to Promote Adolescent Development, Master of Landscape Architecture, The University of Guelph. Author Information Tugba Duzenli Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Orman Fakültesi, Peyzaj Mimarlığı Bölümü, Trabzon / Turkey Contact E-mail: tugbaduzenli@gmail.com Sema Mumcu Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Orman Fakültesi, Peyzaj Mimarlığı Bölümü, Trabzon / Turkey Elif Merve Alpak Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Orman Fakültesi, Peyzaj Mimarlığı Bölümü Trabzon / Turkey 191 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 192-197 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Graphic Designer Profile and Professional Competence Analysis Mustafa KINIK University of Necmettin Erbakan Mahmut Sami OZTURK University of Necmettin Erbakan Abstract: Individuals start their education process with great dreams and expectations when choosing their profession. Curriculum programs of educational institutions may not always meet the sectoral demands. Or the student cannot be able to complete his / her education process with the target outcomes. Graphic design field is favoured , popular and has high expectations in postgraduate life. In this study, graphic designer profile, who works in the sector, were analyed according to the designers views and occupational competences were analyzed acording to the views of agency managers and owners. In this context, analysis of the data were done according to the questionnaires applied to 53 designers and 15 agency managers who provide graphic design services in Ankara province. From this point of view, the research is a descriptive study in the general survey model. A questionnaire including of 24 questions to the participatory designers and 15 questions to the managers was applied. According to findings; it has been revealed that a large majority of graphic designers working on the Ankara advertising market are postgraduate designers, their working schedules are very likely to each other, the softwares they use are similar and they don’t have too much problems about payments and work disciplines. But they can’t have time for social and educational activities because of the density of working hours. According to the opinions of agency owners, although the designers have a sufficient level of designing run and workflow, they are not particularly good at the process of printing and post-printing. Keywords: Graphi designer, Advertising industry, Designer profile, Professional qualification Introduction Technological developments in this century, in which scientific and technological developments have affected our entire life, are closely related to the field of graphic design due to the fact that it is an area within daily life. The individuals begin their education process with big dreams and expectations while they are choosing their profession. The curriculums of educational institutions may not always meet the demands of the sector. Or the student may not be able to complete the training process with targeted gains. Graphic Design Field is a branch that most chosen, likable and always have high expectations in business life after graduation. One of the main problems, and perhaps most importantly, is how a lifelong qualification, which starts in childhood and youth, will gain and how they will use research, inquiry and learning skills. One who uses and implements this can achieve prosperity and a developing social status. Graphic design is a product of thought, a requirement and it is born of a necessity, there is a consciousness. A new design creates its entirely own laws. It has its own unique originality. That means it is something new. Sometimes it is better, sometimes worse, than what has been created before. But it's always new (Odabaşı, 2006). A graphic designer usually has to work against to time in his or her office, with his or her own computer, in movie or photography studios. The designers firstly start to work as a graphic designer or assistant of art director in their workplaces. They can be creative directors at the head of the creative group, which is an art director and later art directors and copywriters due to in line with their creativity. They can be a creative director - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey firstly, later they can be a creative head of a group, which contains art directors and art directors and copywriters due to in line with their creativity (Megep, 2007). The National Vocational Qualifications Institution conducted professional competence studies in many areas. Although there is no direct study of the field of graphic design, there are professional competencies have been studied and published in the Official Newspaper in the fields of “Web and Multimedia Developer “and Vocational Industrial Advertiser. According to this, industrial advertiser; occupation, industrial advertiser (sign painter) National Vocational Standart, was prepared by Outdoor Advertising Association charged by VQI and evaluated with the views of corporations in the sector and after the examination by VQI Metal Sector Committee was approved by VQI according to the law named National Vocational Standarts was made and published with the date 19/10/2015 and numbered 29507 in the Official Newspaper to the mentioned as National Vocational Standarts Vocational Qualifications Institution Law numbered 5544 and according to the Regulation About National Qualifications Preparation and the terms about the Establishment, Duty, Working Procedures and Principles of the Sectoral Committees, which were published in the Official Newpaper on the date of 27/11/2017 with the number of 26173. Web and Multimedia Developer, was prepared by the associations YASAD and TUBDIGER with the coordination of Istanbul Chamber of Commerce (ITO) assigned VQI, according as National Vocational Standarts Vocational Qualifications Institution Law numbered 5544 and according to the Regulation About National Qualifications Preparation and the terms about the Establishment, Duty, Working Procedures and Principles of the Sectoral Committees. In the same regulation, the working environment and conditions of the web and multimedia designer are described as follows: The Web and Multimedia Developer works in closed or closed areas, well-lit, ventilated, thermal comfort conditions and appropriate noise level, in office environments designed for office ergonomics. Working environment and conditions vary according to sub-sectors (National Vocational Standard, 2017). Today, graphic design professionals, graphic designers, and web and multimedia designers work in the same work environment. In fact, the vast majority of designers working in this field are graphic designers who have studied graphics. The advertising agencies serving in the field of design seem to have largely adapted their working conditions to the professional standards framework. The education system, as a student-oriented system, creates a desired environment in which the student is constantly active, researched and questioned. One of the most affected branches is undoubtedly graphic design. Graphic design is an important creative process that aims to convey a message, visualize thought, and explain it to the target audience in the best way possible. For a good design, it is especially important for this area to have a good perception and interpretation of the environment. It is very important to observe, investigate, see, inform in short, both in the graphics area and in other areas, in a true, realistic and complete perception. For this reason, individuals who are intellectual, researching, studying, questioning and developing themselves are obliged to be educated. The general purpose of this research is to reveal the existing profile of graphic designers working in the sector and to determine what their professional qualifications are. The following questions were searched in this research: • What areas did the graphic designers of the sector graduate from the universities? • What are the reasons for choosing the graphic design sector? • How much knowledge and qualifications do they have in the field of graphic design? • How do they renew themselves professionally? • What are the levels of business process monitoring? • What are the skills to communicate with the customer? Indications and Comment In the 21st century, which Scientific and technological developments affect our life, technological developments in the rapid progress of life and because it is an area of interest in the field of graphic design is closely related. 193 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Graphic design is an important creative process that aims to convey a message, to visualize the idea and to tell the audience in the simplest way. For a good design, it is especially important for this area to have a good perception and interpretation of the environment. It is very important to make a good observation, to investigate, to be informed, in short, to feed from the graphics area and other areas. There must be an intellectual structure and a researcher, a designer who constantly reads, wanders and sees. It is not possible to say about the extent to which such non-educational activities can be carried out in the field of design in our country or in business life. The sample of the study consists of 53 women working in large, medium and small scale agencies in Ankara province and 30 of them are women. Of the respondents between the ages of 20 and 46, 54.72% are university graduates and a majority of them are masters and PhD. This shows us that the importance of field education and even postgraduate education are given importance to postgraduate education. 13.21% of the respondents were high school graduates and have been working in the sector for a long time. Of the participants who graduated from a school related to graphic design, 29.27% thought that graphic education should be taken into consideration and 26.83% of them thought that they had sufficient artistic knowledge in schools. 50.00% of the people who are not graduated from graphic design and working in the sector think that this profession will be done without graphic design education. When we look at the working hours in the sector, 22 of the 53 people who participated in the survey, 41.51%, work in this area between 5 and 10 years. 69.23% of the employees and the respondents in the sector do regular work between 9.00-18.30. And this shows us that the working hours in the Ankara market are similar.... When we look at the degree of satisfaction of the workplace, a table appeared: Table 1. Findings about the workplace satisfaction of the designers: How satisfied are you with your work? f % Guite satisfied 23 44.23 Partially satisfied 24 46.15 Not satisfied 5 9.62 We see that about 90% of the participants are satisfied with the question about workplace satisfaction. Of the 9.62% who are not satisfied with the workplace, 24.56% are not satisfied with the workplace due to the lack of work due to the lack of work in the work environment and the work discipline of 14.04% and 12.28% respectively. 34.62% of the participants who participated in the survey about the way in which they were making use of technology when designing, revealed that they produced jobs by fully utilizing the features of computer programs and changing and developing ready designs. Most participants do not sketch. Considering the target audience; 71.15% of the respondents stated that the target audience analyzes were done previously and the design was done in the light of this information. If the customer does not like the design, a large majority of 92% of the participants revisits the design by taking the customer's ideas. It is understood from the point of view of the customer ideas that work as a designer operator works, can not produce original designs. Some of the participants who asked questions about the programs did not learn the programs during the school term because they did not have a computer in the university period and used the programs in the sector life. Program learners in the university period have always focused on similar programs. In general, designers working in the Ankara market have learned the programs such as Freehand, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Indesign, Corel Draw, and again using the same programs on the market and following the current versions of the Adobe series. As a result of the survey we have conducted in order to see how the designers have renewed and nourished themselves in the professional sense (Table 2): 194 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 2. Findings about how designers renew themselves How do you renew yourself professionally? f % I am participating in the vocational training of the place where I work. 7 7.61 I participate in various courses / seminars / exhibitions using my own means. I take advantage of books and Internet. 23 25.00 42 45.65 I participate in the activities organized by the professional organizations / associations that I am a member of. I am continuing my academic studies. 7 7.61 10 10.87 I can’t renew myself. 3 3.26 With the development of technology, 45.65% of the respondents found themselves developing themselves using the internet environment due to the presence of the Internet environment and the shortage of employees. Most designers do not use books to refresh themselves, but follow some of the periodicals. Most designers are aware of and use many internet sites, including images, vectors and designs related to their field of use. The designers working in the sector are interested in graphic design as well as other side branches related to the field. For example, 22% of the respondents are interested in photography, which is a common activity, with 16.98% typography. 12.58% of the illustrations and 10.06% of them are mainly interested in animation. Designers know and follow some of the periodicals in terms of self-development. The most followed and purchased magazine is the up-to-date magazine, Graphic Design magazine, which is a part of 33.08%. This is followed by the following magazines in Photoshop Magazine and Media Cat. The majority of the participants do not follow foreign periodicals. 44.23% of the designers participating in the surveys in the field are informed about the activities, and they cannot participate in these activities because they have problems in terms of time. However, he also develops himself / herself by participating in these activities as he / she finds time in a similar majority group. The results of the questions regarding the general opinion and professional competence levels of the managers of the agencies operating in the Ankara market are as follows: Table 3. The opinions of the managers of the agency about the fact that the employees can plan, implement and complete a given job in the required time Can plan, implement and complete a given job at given time. f % Strongly disagree 2 13.33 Don’t disagree 0 0.00 Undecided 1 6.67 Agree 9 60.00 Strongly agree 3 20.00 When we look at the above results, approximately 80% of the participant managers stated that they can organize a work done well, plan, apply and complete them at the desired time. Again, 60% of these participants said that they can make original designs. Table 4. The opinions of the managers of the agency about the applicability of the designs made by the designers Makes sure that his designs are applicable. f % Strongly disagree 1 6.67 Don’t disagree 2 13.33 Undecided 3 20.00 Agree 7 46.67 Strongly agree 2 13.33 195 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey 46.67% of the managers participating in the survey thought that the designs made by the designers were applicable, 33.33% of the designers were considering the cost of the work done by the designers. A large proportion of the opinion of the agency managers is that the designers design the target audience and the customer. Again, agency managers have a common view on the ideas that designers design to target audience and customers. 53.33% of the participants in the field of desktop publishing think that the designers have this knowledge, and they think that the present staff has sufficient knowledge and experience about web and interactive publishing. Table 5. The opinions of the agency managers on the information competencies of employees on printing Has the necessary information about the printery f % Strongly disagree 3 20.00 Don’t disagree 0 0.00 Undecided 5 33.33 Agree 7 46.67 Strongly agree 0 0.00 46.67% of the agency managers think that the designers working in their organizations have the necessary printing knowledge and experience. 33.33% of the participants think that they follow the technological developments related to their field. As an example, we can give designers the opportunity to follow the current versions of the programs they use. At the same time, the same value cuts the current versions of the programs as we mentioned. When we look at the communication skills, the common vision of designers and agency managers is as follows: They agree that designers can establish a healthy communication with customers, employers and other staff. In addition, they are of the opinion that the designers working in their structure should use the office personnel that conform to the workplace attitudes and rules, adapt to the team work and which is definitely the common value they participate. Method In the study; graphic designer profile working in the sector, professional competencies are analyzed according to the opinions of the agency managers and owners. In this context, the analysis of the data obtained from the questionnaires applied to 53 designers and managers of large and small scale agencies in Ankara City. In this respect, research is a descriptive survey in the general survey model. A questionnaire consisting of 24 questions was applied to the participant designers and 15 questions to the managers. The questionnaire was delivered to the participants via the internet, sent via e-mail using the survey system and results were obtained. Conclusion In Ankara advertising market, where a large number of designers work in different agency settings, a long period of time and in a highly visible fashion, women designers work at similar times. Most of them do this job because they love this profession, and they are mostly graduates. Apart from minor problems such as wage, work discipline, they are working in a satisfactory manner in the agency environment. The opinion of almost most of the graphic design requires a special talent, creativity and training, and advocates of artistic and technical knowledge in graphic education are advocated. Nowadays, with the rapid development of the Internet environment, designers follow one or two of the periodicals and generally use the internet to improve themselves. In addition, the designers follow the websites about the area to be inspired. Besides, it is interested in subjects such as typography, illustration poster design and photography as well as a large part area. Most of the designers participating in the survey are aware of the 196 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey activities such as seminars, conferences, conferences, etc. and we can see that most of the work intensity cannot participate in these activities and some of them participate in these events as they have time. According to the evaluation made by the agency managers in the agencies operating in the sector and the professional qualifications of the designers; In general, most of the designers think that they have a good level in terms of desktop publishing and they make original designs suitable for the customer. However, they think that designers experience minor problems in terms of cost and applicability. They believe that designers working in their bodies have printing knowledge and they still have a lack of web and interactive publishing. In addition, the designers working in the company follow and implement the technological developments in their field. When we look at the evaluation results in terms of communication skills, it is considered that most of the working designers both have a healthy and positive communication with the employer and the client. We can offer the following suggestions in light of the findings from the results of the questions directed to the graphic designers and agency managers working in the sector: Based on the view that not only does the book and the internet source develop much more creativity, it should also be able to arrange for the designers to spend more time on the activities, and if necessary, follow the events for the professional development of the staff of the agency owners and guide the designers as a duty. Considering the importance of being more successful and knowledgeable, it should be deduced that graphical education is important both for him / herself and for agency status. In schools, more technical information should be given and curriculum programs should be organized taking into consideration the sector adaptations of newly graduated graphic designers. Designers should develop themselves in different areas by considering the need for designers for different media. Agency owners should always support and support the staff working in their professional qualifications and, if necessary, refer their opinions. References ubat ). Ulusal Meslek Standardı, esmı a ete Sayı (M kerrer) ( asım ). Ulusal Meslek Standardı, . esmı a ete Sayı (M kerrer) Atan, A. ( ). esimli esim Sö l ğ . Asil Yayın Dağıtım Ankara Barnard, M. (2002). Sanat, Tasarım ve örsel lt r. Ütopya Yayınevi Ankara. Becer, E. ( 99 ). İletişim ve rafik Tasarımı. Dost Yayınları Ankara. Odabaşı, A, H. ( ). rafikte Temel Tasarım. ( . Baskı) İstanbul Yorum Yayınları. Yanık, H. ( ). Masa st Yayıncılık. M ka Matbaacılık. İstanbul. http://megep.gov.tr http://www.truity.com/career-profile/graphic-designer, (Erişim tarihi Aralık ) Author Information Mustafa Kinik Mahmut Sami Ozturk Department of Graphic, Faculty of Fine Arts University of Necmettin Erbakan Konya, Turkey Contact e-mail: mkinik@konya.edu.tr Department of Graphic, Faculty of Fine Arts University of Necmettin Erbakan Konya,Turkey 197 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 198-227 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education The Committees in the Turkish Parliament: Existing Problems and Solutions after 2017 Constitutional Reform Fahri BAKIRCI Grand National Assembly of Turkey Abstract: Turkish Parliament, namely Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNAT) works for a very long time in each legislative period. Despite this long and exhausting work performance, the need for the new laws has increased in time. An important reason for this low degree of productivity is the committee stage that is an important part of legislative process in GNAT. First of all I will try to explain the problematic aspects in the committees that are an important reason of unproductive legislative process in GNAT. Secondly Turkey has experienced a major Constitutional reform recently, in 2017. The existing parliamentary system was replaced by Turkish Type Presidential system by the constitutional amendments of 2017. These amendments definitely will effect working procedure of GNAT. I will concentrate on these amendments and the probable effects of them on the committees. Finally I will try to give some recommendation that may be useful in case of any amendment in Rules of Procedure (İçtüzük) of GNAT. Keywords: Committee, Parliament, Grand national assembly of Turkey (GNAT), Rules of procedure, Constitution Introduction Turkish Parliament, namely Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNAT) is under a heavy workload during each legislative period. Therefore it has to work very long times in its each legislative day in order to overcome this heavy workload. When compared to contemporary parliaments, this heavy workload can be seen more clearly. According to a survey conducted in 2002 (İba, 2006, s. 100), the GNAT issued 555 laws in each legislative period.. For this reason it was called as a legislative factory. Despite these lengthy working times, however, the need for new legislation has increased steadily over time. In this case, this question becomes inevitable: despite the long working hours why the need to make new laws does not decrease? The answer to this question should be sought in the RP, which includes an inefficient and unreasonable method of work. GNAT proceeds according to its Rules of Procedure (RP) or Standing Orders (SO) (İçtüzük), which entered into force in 1973. This RP was the result of a legislative reform under the conditions of that time, and divided the legislative process into two main phases, the committee phase and the general assembly phase. Both phases include some problematic aspects. I will focus primarily on the problematic aspects in the committee stage. But concentrating on committees may cause us to ignore the fact that they are affected by the whole system they are part of. In every country, the committees fulfill their duties in a different way, and the reason for this disparity is the different nature and status of the assemblies in which these committees are located. Therefore in judging the work and structure of the committees, we always have to take into account the institutional system to which they belong (Wheare, 1955, s. 2-3). So, first of all I will focus on the committee phase, but when necessary I will also refer to the general assembly stage. The problematic aspects of the committee stage can be divided into three groups: (1) repetition problems (2) domination problems and, (3) civic participation problems. The first group of these aspects stems from repeating each other's work and actions by the legislative actors. Therefore, this first group will be called as repetition problems. Repetition problems may appear between committees and General Assembly and among committees. - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey According to the RP, the final decision authority is the General Assembly and the committees only prepare a report for the final decision authority: Commission reports are only a basis for decisions of the General Assembly. As Wheare pointed out (1955, s. 6) in fact, the notion of a committee generally includes inherently the idea of to be derived or to be secondary or to be in a dependent status. A committee lacks original jurisdiction; it acts on behalf of another body and it is responsible to another body. However, being secondary does not mean to be fully repeated by the general assembly, nor does it mean that all the final decision should be given by the general assembly. For example, there is a division of labor and cooperation between the committees and the general assemblies in the Spanish Parliament or the British Parliament. In both countries, the committees may be authorized by the general assembly to make final decisions, and in both of them committees have important competences in shaping the laws. For this reason, it can be argued that although the committees are in a secondary or dependent status in these two countries, they share the legislative burden with the general assembly. In Turkish Parliament, by contrast, it can be said that the work done in the committees is completely repeated by the general assembly. This is the first part of repetition problem in GNAT. The second part of repetition problem is among committees. RP divides the committees into two group according to their authorities and responsibilities: Main and secondary committees. The main committee is responsible for all phases of the text, including the plenary session; whereas the secondary committee is obliged to give only its opinion to the main committee about the whole text or some parts of the text. In other words, a secondary committee only assists the main committee to make its decision. This regulation was added to the RP during RP reform of 1996. The aim of the regulation was to create a division of labor and cooperation among committees. The logic behind the regulation was: (1) Each committee would debate the part of the text that is in its jurisdiction and (2) All the opinion would be united by the main committee. But this logic of the regulation did not operate in practice and the aim of the regulation could not be succeed because secondary committee did not give a detailed opinion to the main committee and the main committee did not take into account the opinion of the second committee. Establishment of the committees is the second group problematic aspects. This group of the problems is due to domination of the majority party in the committee. For this reason, this second group will be called as domination problems: (1) According to RP (art. 11) membership in a committee is open only for political party groups and it is necessary to have at least 20 deputies to form a political party group (Constitution, article 95). Therefore, political parties that do not have 20 members are unable to form a political party group and members of such political parties cannot be member of the committees. Likewise, the independent members of the parliament cannot be members of a committee. On the one hand this leads over-representation of the political party groups in the committees and on the other hand to the loss of power of the political parties that cannot establish a political party group in the parliament. Because, when political parties that cannot form a group are not represented in the commission, their rights are used by the political party groups. (2) The administration of the committees belongs to majority party in the parliament. Each committee has a bureau which consists of four persons: chairperson, vice-chairperson, spokesperson and secretary. According to RP (art. 24), upon completion of the election of the members, the committees are called for meeting by the Speaker of the GNAT. In the meetings, each committee elects its chairperson, vice-chairperson, spokesperson, and secretary. Quorum for this election is the absolute majority of total number of the committee members. The election is conducted by secret ballot. The vote of the absolute majority of the members present is required to be elected. As a result of this rule, in every committee the ruling party elects its members as the president, vice-president, spokesperson and secretary. This means that the ruling party may be fully in control of the committee administration. When the government dominates the committee through its majority in the parliament and when the voice of the opposition in the committee is restrained, the committee loses all its specialty. In Wheare‟s words, we may ask of a committee not only: „Is it doing its job and is it doing it well?‟ but also „Is it doing the job?‟ …If we find that in fact the committee is a mere screen behind which somebody else is performing its function, we must conclude that the committee is not doing its job. (Wheare, 1955, s. 10) The third problematic area is civic participation in the committees. This last group of the problematic aspects will be called participation problems. As mentioned above the RP entered into force in the 1970‟s, and in those years the concept of citizen participation was not common to the states. Therefore, the RP, naturally, did not regulate citizen participation. But especially after the activation of the process of European Union (EU) membership, the participation of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) or Civil Society Organizations (CSO) became an important matter in the negotiation period because it was a vital element of democratic legislative process. That‟s why although there was no any rule about it in the RP, committee chairmen started to invite NGO representative to the committee meetings. However, the absence of a written rule in this regard in the RP leaves the civil society‟s participation to the initiative of the committee chairman. Therefore, it can be 199 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey said with ease that there is no systematic NGO participation in the committees and this is one of the major obstacles to the securing of a democratic legislative process in the committees. As I mentioned above, in this work I will first focus on the problems that may arise in the committees and then I will discuss some of the general issues that are directly related to the General Assembly and indirectly related to the committees. These general issues are (1) bag bills, (2) basic laws and, (3) the bills in the appearance of the proposals. The reason for the emergence of these concepts is the same: accelerating the legislative process. In fact, modern parliaments may use rationalization techniques that allow more qualified laws to be extracted in a shorter time. However, shortening the legislative process in such a way as to remove democratic processes may result in the issuing of unqualified laws. I will try to show that the concepts mentioned here are concepts that prevent the issuance of qualified laws by accelerating the legislative process. There is no doubt that this situation negatively has affected the legislative process in the committees. One of the leading aims of this work is to develop proposals for the construction of a democratic legislative process that allows more qualified legislation to be issued with more rational methods. For this aim, some recommendations will be tried to be presented at the end of the study. However, before the presentation of these recommendations, it is necessary to mention two separate amendments to the Constitution and the Rules of Procedure in 2017. These amendments have made significant changes in parliament's working procedures and they will make further changes after the new constitutional amendments that enter into force in 2019. Therefore, after the changes in the new RP, which entered into force in 2017, and the amendments to the Constitution, which will take effect in 2019, have briefly examined here. Finally, the effects of these amendments on parliament's activities has been tried to be revealed. The Problematic Aspects in the Committee There are a wide variety of the committees in GNAT. These committees can be grouped according to different criteria (Bakırcı, TBMM'de Komisyonların Yapı ve İşleyişi: Sorunlar ve Çözüm Önerileri, 2011, s. 114-115): Figure 1. Committees in GNATi 200 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey (1) Legal basis: The Plan and Budget Committee and the Investigation Committee are regulated by the Constitution itself due to their influence on political stability. Some Commission, such as the EU Harmonization Committee, Petition Committee and the Human Rights Committee, have been established by law in order to establish direct contact with citizens. Other standing committees, such Justice Committee, Interior Affairs Committee, Constitutional Committee are established by RP because they are just related to inner working of GNAT. (2) Continuity: Some of the committees in the GNAT are permanent (standing), and some are temporary committees. Research and inquiry committees are temporary committees because they have work only for a certain period of time after being established. Other committees are permanent or standing committees, all of which are listed in article 20 of the RP. (3) Function: The vast majority of the committees can only discuss draft bills and proposals, which are referred to them by the Speaker; they cannot hold meetings and negotiations without such a bill and proposal; they cannot be engaged in matters other than those assigned to them. On the contrary, some committees, such as the petition committee, cannot discuss the draft bills and the proposal. Some committees, such as the human rights committee, can perform both functions. (4) Competence: According to the article 23 of RP, the committee whose report will constitute the basic document for the Plenary debates is called the primary committee. Secondary committees are those that present their opinions on the parts or articles of the matter, within the remit of the committee. Although the committees differ from one another in various ways, the problems addressed in the introduction are applicable to all kind of the committees. Now these problems can be examined more closely. Repetition Problem The first problem in the committees is the repetition problem and this problem may arise in two dimensions: (1) between the General Assembly and the committees, (2) between the committees themselves. Repetition problem between the General Assembly and the committees All the above mentioned committees are conducting preparatory work on behalf of the General Assembly and the General Assembly is the final decision authority. In fact, in every parliament, committees are in secondary positions compared to the general assemblies and as Wheare noted (1955, s. 6) the notion of a committee generally includes inherently the idea of to be derived or to be secondary. However, being in a secondary position may not have the same meaning in every parliament. There are many examples in different parliaments. For example although the committees are in a secondary position in the Spanish Parliament, (1) some of its authority may be transferred to the committees as the ultimate decision maker and, (2) not all of their work needs to be repeated by the plenary. According Parliament‟s RP: Full legislative authority of Committees Section 148 1. The decision of Congress delegating full legislative authority to committees shall be presumed for all bills that may constitutionally be delegated,… According to the article 149 of the RP …before the debate in committee takes place, the full House may reserve for itself final adoption, upon the proposal of the Bureau after consultation with the Board of Spokesmen. The evaluation of these two rules yields the following result: The General Assembly can transfer final decision making authority to the committees provided that the authority can be withdrawn at any time by the General Assembly. According to article 110 of the RP after a bill has been published, Members and parliamentary groups shall be allowed a term of fifteen days in which to propose amendments thereto. Article 117 includes that, within fortyeight hours of conclusion of the (Committee) report, parliamentary groups shall make known by notice addressed to the Speaker any dissenting opinions and amendments defended by them and voted upon in the committee, but not included in the report, if they intend to defend them again on the floor of the House. As understood from these two rules, the process of the amendment starts at the committee stage and continues in 201 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey the General Assembly. The General Assembly has no authority to re-negotiate an amendment adopted in committee. This means that each organ has a duty in the legislative process and it is forbidden for these two organs to repeat the same act. All the objections should be done in the committee and the plenary can only negotiate unresolved amendments in the committee stage. (Bakırcı, 2014, s. 100) As a result, it can be said that in the Spanish Parliament, the committees and the General Assembly work in close cooperation and division of labor, and that the committees share the burden of the General Assembly. Another example that may be given for the cooperation and division of labor between General Assembly and the committees is the British Parliament. There are three readings and five stages in the legislative process there and each reading and stage is based on the preceding one: First reading includes formal introduction of the bill; in the second reading principles of the bill are considered and a vote is taken; in the committee stage a standing committee scrutinize the bill in detail; in the report stage chair of the committee reports to the House on the committee‟s deliberations and finally in the third reading and vote the bill passes/does not pass from the House. (Beale, 1997, s. 16) Figure 2. Stages of the legislative process in the British Parliament As can be seen, the legislative period begins with the first and second readings in the General Assembly and then the bill is sent to the general (standing) committee after reaching consensus on the principles of it. ii After the committee finishes its work, the bill is submitted to the General Assembly for the amendments that was submitted, but not accepted in the committee. iii Therefore, it can be said that the committee and the general assembly phases in the British parliament are part of an indivisible whole process in which they complete each other. The proceedings in committee are the most important part of parliament‟s consideration of bills; they absorb most of the time spent on legislation. (Griffith, Ryle, & Wheler-Booth, 1989, s. 231) British system is so rationalized that whole House sometimes may function as a committee debating annual financial bills, bills of constitutional importance, bills so unimportant as not to warrant the creation of a general committee to consider them.iv (Bradshaw & Pring, 1981, s. 270) These two examples, the Spanish and British examples, show that in the rationalized parliaments, the committees share the burden of the general assembly and help fulfill and complement the work has to be done there.v These examples are sufficient to make more visible the problem in the GNAT because there is no similar cooperation between the general assembly and commissions in the GNAT and the General Assembly has to repeat once more the work that was done the committee. The natural consequence of this situation is that it is crushed under heavy workload because all the work has to be done alone. The solution of this problem is to distribute the works between the committees and the General Assembly by making amendments in the Rules of Procedure and to prevent duplication of the work that has done in the committees. Thanks to this method, committees will become important actors in the legislative process like the General Assembly and the General Assembly will have sufficient time to issue the required laws. Repetition problem among committees As a general rule, in any parliament, each committee must discuss a bill that falls within the scope of its mandate, and each proposal must fall within the jurisdiction of a particular committee. Sometimes, however, the same proposal may enter the jurisdiction of more than one committee. In this case, determining which 202 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey commission is authorized becomes a problem. This problem can become very serious especially in parliaments that have accepted the bag lawvi mechanism because the bag laws, by definition, contain more than one law. In the GNAT, if a bill involves provisions that are related to different laws, it has to be discussed in the different committees that are competent in this respect. In 1927 RP, i.e. in the first RP of the GNAT, although bag laws were not known, a fairly reasonable solution was envisaged to this problem. Then, it was possible to establish temporary or mixed committees if a bill had articles that are related to more than one law (art. 25). Mixed committees were composed of different permanent committees whereas temporary committees were composed of MPs who may or may not be member of a committee. Moreover, the General Assembly was authorized to increase the number of members of a committee temporarily. Therefore, this issue was not a problematic area in the period of 1927 RP. The 1973 RP changed this rule and became a source of a new problem. According to article 23 of 1973 RP the main committee was the committee whose report was the base for the plenary debates. Although this rule did not define secondary committee, it implied the existence of secondary committees or other committees than main committee. In the implementation period of this rule, the Speaker, in practice, appointed one main committee and one or more committees for each bill or proposal. The bill was referring to the first committee determined by the Speaker and it was expected to be discussed by this committee. After completing the first committee's negotiations, the draft bill, with the first committee‟s report, was sending to the second committee in line. After completing the second committee's negotiations, the draft bill, with the second committee‟s report, was sending to the third committee in line, and so on. Each committee was proceeding on the basis of the report of the previous committee. Therefore, there was no risk that the work of the previous committee would be ignored. The problem was that the main committee had to wait for all the secondary committees to finish their work because in order for the text to come to itself, all committees before it had to complete their negotiations. This led to the complaints of the main committees because the main committees had to either wait too long for the report of the secondary committees or the main committees never negotiated the bills because secondary committees did not complete their negotiations on the text. In order to find a solution to this problem, a serious change was made in the RP amendments made in 1996 vii. After 1996 amendments, according to new article 23 of RP, the committee whose report will constitute the basic document for the plenary debates is called the primary committee. Secondary committees are those that present their opinions on the parts or articles of the matter, within the remit of the committee. The main difference of this regulation from the old one is that the Speaker refers the bill to the both of the committees at the same time and all the secondary committees have ten days‟ time limit to complete their negotiation. Ten days later the main committee is able to use its powers without waiting for the reports of the secondary committees. Thus this amendment had solved the problem originates from 1973 RP. However, after this change, a more serious problem raised: It is true that the main the committee has no obligation to wait the report of secondary committee reports after ten days, but at the same time it is also true that the main committee has no obligation to take into account the views of the secondary committee. Because, according to the new regulations, the main committee does not have to carry out its negotiations on the report of the secondary committee. And in practice, the main committees, -on the grounds that serious and rigorous work has not been done by the secondary committees- did not take into account the views of the secondary committees; secondary committees, -on the grounds that their views will not be taken into account by the main committees- did not make serious and rigorous work. This is a vicious cycle, and because of this vicious cycle, the rule has lost its ability to be implemented. As a result, the new system is locked for most of the committees and regulations of updated Article 23 generally means a loss of time for the GNAT (Bakırcı, 2011, s. 127-130). The main purpose of the amendment of article 23 was that each committee should submit its opinion on issues falling within its field of expertise and that these opinions should be consolidated by the main committee. Since the secondary committees either offer no opinion or offer no persuasive opinion, the work they do is repeated in each case by the main committees. The result is repetition problem among committees. Now some examples of European countries, i. e. Spanish and British, can be examined in order to make suggestions for solution of this problem. viii In the Spanish parliament, there is no any distinction such as the main committee and the secondary committee, and there is no need to make such a distinction. In this case it is necessary to ask the following question: What will happen if there are two committees related to the same bill? In other words, what will happen if a bill falls within the jurisdiction of two committees? The RP of the Spanish Parliament have foreseen highly reasonable solutions that make these questions unnecessary. (Bakırcı, 2014, s. 38) 203 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Figure 3. Committees in the Spain Parliament ix Solution 1. Replacement of the committee members: According to article 40 of the RP: Parliamentary groups may replace one or more of their members on a committee by any other member or members of the same group, upon prior written notice to the Speaker of Congress. If the substitution is for a specific matter, debate or meeting only, notice shall be given verbally or in writing to the Chairman of the committee and if in such notice it is stated that the substitution is a purely contingent one, then the Chairman shall admit as a member of the committee either the substitute or the original member. As it can be seen, every parliamentary group can change its member(s) of a committee permanently or temporarily. This opportunity gives political party groups the right to collect and rearrange their expert members in any permanent committee. Since every political party has the right to appoint relevant members to the relevant standing committee, it is no longer necessary to refer a bill to different standing committees. The expertise of the different committees can be reassembled under a specialized committee when necessary. Thus, instead of moving a bill between committees, it is preferable to move the members of the parliamentary group among the committees. Solution 2. The right to submit amendment for all the MP: According to article 110 of the RP: 1. After a bill has been published, Members and parliamentary groups shall be allowed a term of fifteen days in which to propose amendments thereto, in writing addressed to the bureau of the committee… Clearly, in the Spanish Parliament, not only the members of the committees but also every MP have the right to submit amendment. Therefore, it can be said that there is no big difference between the members of the committees and MP in terms of participation in the legislative process in the committees x. When necessary, all MP‟s may come to a committee and make active contributions through the amendments. Therefore, in order to ensure the participation of expert MPs, there is no need to refer the bill to all committees. Any MP who thinks he/she has a certain level of expertise can go to a standing committee to submit an amendment. Thus, instead of moving a bill between committees, it is preferable to give the right to submit amendments to all MP‟s, in all committees. Solution 3. Prohibition of bag law Bag laws should not, in fact, be considered a category in the classification of laws. In teaching, bag laws are not regarded as a kind of law. For this reason, there is no need to set a rule in this regard in order to ban bag laws. In this sense, the RP of the Spanish Parliament does not explicitly contain any rules prohibiting bag laws. However, in the RP, there are indirect provisions related to this prohibition. According to article 110/3 amendments to the whole bill shall be those questioning … principles or spirit of the bill and calling for its return to the Government, or proposing a complete alternative text. It is known that bag laws cannot have any principle and spirit, and this article foresees to return to the government the bills that have no principle or spirit. 204 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Therefore, it can be said that there is no bag law in the Spanish Parliament and when there is no bag law in a parliament, the need for the same text to be discussed at more than one committee is significantly reduced. As the bag laws contain more than one subject, they should be referred to more than one committee and when there is no bag law, there is no need of negotiation in more than one committee. In the British Parliament, as in Spanish Parliament, there is no any distinction such as the main committee and the secondary committee. Much of the work of Parliament, i.e., of the House of Commons and the House of Lords, takes place in committees which examine issues in detail, from government policy and proposed new laws, to wider topics like the economy. There are four main types of the committee: Select committees check and report on areas ranging from the work of government departments to economic affairs. Joint committees, which have similar powers to other select committees, are committees consisting of MPs and members of the Lords. There are two types of joint committee: Permanent and temporary. Joint Committees on Human Rights, National Security Strategy and Statutory Instruments are permanent joint committees. Temporary joint committees, are appointed for specific purposes, such as examining draft proposals for Bills on subjects ranging from modern slavery to stem cell research. General committeesxi consider proposed legislation in detail. A public or private bill committee is appointed for each bill that goes through Parliament and it is named after the Bill it considers (UK Parliament, 2018). General committees are temporary committees established for debating bills. For each bill a new general committee is formed, and this committee, which is called by the name of the proposed bill, is dissolved after the report has been submitted. For example Standing Committee A xii considered the New Town Bill, the Shipbuilding Bill, the Transport Bill and the Oil and Pipelines Bill. Each of these committees is committee A, but their members are totally different; their common point is the letter A. There is no limit to the number of general committees established in a particular period, but most sessions have seven or eight at maximum. (Silk, 1989, s. 129-130). Grand committees debate issues affecting MPs region; every MP representing a constituency in the region is entitled to attend Grand Committee meetings. (UK Parliament, 2018) Figure 4. Committees in the British Parliament xiii In the UK system, it seems that the main committees charged with negotiating the bills are general committees. That's why we will focus on these committees here. In the British committee system the distinction between the main committee and the secondary committee, naturally, is unnecessary. The reason for this is clear: A new general committee has to be established for every new bill, and it is possible to bring expert MPs in this committee during the establishment of this committee. Establishment of a new committee, each time, creates opportunity to bring together the expert MPs under this committee. Hence, it is never necessary to have more than one committee debate on the same bill in this system. As a matter of fact, the committees that organized in the first RP of GNAT, which entered into force in 1927, have similarities to these general committees of British Parliament. According to article 25 of 1927 RP of GNAT, the General Assembly had the authority to establish mixed or temporary committees in addition to the existing 17 permanent committees. In this RP, there was no need to make division between the main committee 205 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey and the secondary committee, because a temporary committee or mixed committee could be established for the bills that changed more than one law. From these two examples, namely the British general committees and the commission system envisaged in the1927 RP of the TGNA, the following conclusions can be drawn: (1) If it is possible to establish a temporary or mixed committee for a bill, then the main committee-secondary committee distinction becomes unnecessary. (2) Temporary or mixed legislative committee has the advantage of bringing together expert MPs. (3) The temporary or mixed committee mechanism solves the problem of referring the bill to more than one committee regardless bag law problem. Under this subheading, we have examined the repetition problem between committees and the two countries that do not have such a problem. Moreover, it has been shown that there was no such problem in the RP that applied in the first years of the GNAT. Based on the results obtained from these examinations, the following summary can be made. Today's main committee-secondary committee distinction in the RP of GNAT was introduced as a response to the past problems, but it has further deepened the problem. Certainly, it can be said that this distinction does not work and it causes more harm than good. This rule, on the one hand, only leads to bureaucratic procedures and time loss since the secondary committees generally do not fulfill their duties. On the other hand, when the secondary committees fulfill their duties, their opinions are not taken into consideration by the main committees and the work done in the secondary committee is being repeated by the main committee. This means loss of time, energy and cost. The solution is to remove this division or make it rational: (1) The bag bills are the main source of the problem, because they contain articles that foresee amendments in different laws and therefore they require the examination of more than one committee. As a solution, bag laws must be strictly and completely forbidden. (2) Instead of main committee-secondary committee distinction, temporary or joint committee should be preferred. British general committees or temporary or mixed committees in 1927 RP of GNAT prove that there is no problem when there is no such distinction. Therefore, the removal of this distinction and the replacement of it by temporary legislative committees may be proposed as a solution. xiv (3) Instead of the temporary commission, as in Spain, it is possible to settle the problem with various rationalization techniques. Replacement of the committee members among committees, the right to submit amendment for all the MP are some examples of these rationalization techniques Domination Problem The second problem in the committees is the domination problem and this problem arises in two phases: (1) establishment of the committee, (2) management of the committee. There is a fundamental principle in the committees that must be applied both during the establishment phase and during the management phase. This fundamental principle, which at the same time determines the framework of the working method of the legislature, is regulated in article 95 of the 1982 Constitution: The GNAT shall carry out its activities in accordance with the provisions of the Rules of Procedure drawn up by itself. The provisions of the Rules of Procedure shall be drawn up in such a way as to ensure the participation of each political party group in all the activities of the Assembly in proportion to its number of members. Political party groups shall be constituted only if they have at least twenty members. Although this article seems clear, it has been the subject of different interpretations both in practice of the GNAT and in Constitutional Court‟s judicial decisions. The problem is rooted in the expression of “to ensure the participation of each political party group”. What does it mean “ensure the participation of each political party group”. Does this mean that only political party groups should be involved, or does it include the participation of parties who cannot form a group and independent MPs? Does this statement require that the premise be implemented on a parliamentary basis or on a commission basis? The reason that have led to the emergence of dominance in the establishment and management phases of the committees can be found in the answers of these questions. Now we will focus on the answers to these question and how they lead to the dominance problem in establishment phase and management phase. Domination problem in the establishment of committee The last sentence of Article 95, quoted above, was: Political party groups shall be constituted only if they have at least twenty members. According to this rule, it is very clear that political parties which have fewer than 20 members cannot form a political party group. For example, when a political party has 19 members, it cannot form a political party group on its own or with another party. Let's think about a scenario: Let's say total number of MP is 550 and there are 11 political parties in the parliament. Ruling party has 360 member and the other 10 206 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey political parties have 190 members. Let‟s say each political party has 19 member. In this case, all committee memberships will belong to the ruling party and no membership will be granted to other political parties. But, there is also a part which is neglected in the same article: “The provisions of the Rules of Procedure shall be drawn up in such a way as to ensure the participation of each political party group in all the activities of the Assembly in proportion to its number of members.(emphasis added)” Hence, a careful examination of the article reveals that the regulation consist of two parts: (1) Political party groups should participate, and (2) Political party groups should participate in proportion to their number of members. In the mentioned scenario the ruling party‟s proportion is 360/550= 65 percent. However, if all committee memberships belong to the ruling party, this party will have a power above the proportion to its number of members. It is clear that such an application will be against the Constitution. In order to avoid a practice contrary to the Constitution, all the political parties, regardless of whether they are a political party group, should also be allowed to participate in legislative activities. What is the real situation in practice? To answer this question it is necessary to look at the RP. According to article 21 of RP, “The Speaker determines the number of committee members allocated to each political party group in accordance with the percentages specified in the first provision of the Article 11” and according to referred article 11, “The Speaker of the GNAT determines the percentages of political party groups over the total number of party groups and the number of positions in the Bureau per each political party group and submits the results to the Board of Spokespersons. (emphasis added)” This means that all memberships in the committees and in the Bureauxv are allocated to political party groups and no share is given to the political parties, which do not have a group, and the independents. Therefore it is claimed that this implementation is contrary to the Constitution. Advocates of this claim states that all the MPs, regardless of whether they are a member of the political party group, should participate to the legislative activities and that otherwise the political party groups will be over-represented (Teziç, 1980, s. 100-101). In the doctrine, this view is widely accepted. Moreover, this view is a view that the Constitutional Court supports with its decisions. The problem was brought twice before the Constitutional Court in 1970 and 1973 and in both cases the Court decided that the application was contrary to the Constitution ( E. 1967/40, K. 1970/26, 14.05.1970; E. 1973/43, K. 1973/39, 25. 12.1973). But despite this widely accepted view of the Doctrine and the decisions of the Constitutional Court, the regulation in the RP and the practice that based on this regulation, have been otherwise. That means, in practice, MPs, who are not members of the political party group cannot be members of the committees or members of the Bureau. (Bakırcı, 2000, s. 336-337) In order to be persuaded, it is necessary to look a little more closely to the issue of compliance with the Constitution. In the doctrine and in the decisions of Constitutional Court, it is alleged that if all of the memberships in the committees are given to political party groups, these groups will gain a power over their real proportion to their number of members. In order to avoid such a situation, each political party should be represented in proportion to its power, regardless of whether or not it can form a group. This result is a principal derived from Article 95 of the Constitution and it may be called as the representation principle proportional to its own power. This principle does not allow political parties to be represented neither over their power, nor under their power (Tanilli, 1982, s. 301-305). Therefore it can be said that the regulation and implementation of the RP, which do not allow political parties other than political party groups to be represented in the committees, are contrary to the Constitution. Hence, the Constitution allowed the independent MPs to become the members of Budget Committee and investigation committee, which directly are regulated by the Constitution itself. Moreover, there is an obligation to include independent MPs who are not members of political party groups, at the Committees, which are regulated by law, namely the Human Rights Committee, the Committee on State Economic Enterprises and the Committee for Equal Opportunities for Women and Men, and the EU Harmonization Committee. In other words, both the Constitution and the laws allowed the independent MPs to become members of the committees, whereas RP did not (Bakırcı, 2011, s. 118-119). This is another proof of the unconstitutionality of the regulation included in the RP in this regard. The disadvantage of the current practice, which is alleged to be contrary to the Constitution, is that the shares of the small political parties is distributed among big political party groups and that in this distribution the biggest party takes the biggest share. If it is supposed that the biggest party is the ruling party, it can be argued that this situation has increased the dominance of the ruling party. Countries that have the principle of rationalized parliamentarism do not encounter such a problem. Hence, here, some countries can be examined to find a solution to the problem in GNAT. A good example that has completely solved this problem is the Spanish Parliament. In this parliament, by using the concept of parliamentary group instead of the concept of political party group, the possibility of emergence of the problem has been zeroed. 207 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey ccording to RP of Spanish Parliament: A parliamentary group may be formed by a minimum of fifteen members. A Parliamentary Group may also be formed by members of one or more political parties… (art. 23). Members who belong to none of the parliamentary groups so established may associate with any of them by means of an application... (art. 24). Members who, according to the provisions of preceding Sections, are not included in a parliamentary group within the term specified, shall form part of the Mixed Group. No Member may belong to more than one parliamentary group. (art. 25) An important conclusion that can be drawn from these articles is that: Every MP is a member of a parliamentary group and a MP cannot be a member of more than one parliamentary group. Figure 5. Parliamentary groups in Spanish Parliament xvi If every MP is a member of a parliamentary group and no one is a member of more than one group, then the representation principle operates automatically and there is no possibility to act against this principle. This means that, in the Spanish Parliament, the participation to the legislative activities, and therefore to the activities of committee, is guaranteed for all political parties and independent members. Neither the ruling party, nor any other party can be represented over or under its power in the committee. Another example can be found in Austrian Parliament. It is enough to have only five MP to establish a political party group in the Austrian Parliament. On the other hand, there is an electoral threshold in this Parliament, and every political parties that exceed the electoral threshold can certainly have more than five members. This means that in the Austrian Parliament all political parties that exceed the electoral threshold can establish a political party group and so every MP is automatically a member of a political party group (Bakırcı, Avusturya Parlamentosu Üzerine, 2013, s. 1197). So, here too, there can be no over-representation of any political party in general assembly or in committee as it is in the Spanish Parliament. Lastly, it is necessary to deal with why the representation principle is so important. In representative systems, every deputy is elected to represent the views of certain voters. It is therefore natural that every MP should be given the right to participate in legislative activities. However, it is often not possible for each deputy to participate individually in legislative activities because of time constraints. The general assemblies of parliaments are crowded boards and due to time insufficiency it is almost impossible for every member of this board to be given the right to speak every day. For example, there are 550 MPs in the GNAT and the time required for each deputy to exercise one minute of speech per day is at least 550 minutes (about 9-10 hours). If it is taken into consideration that the daily working time is much shorter than this and if it is thought that it is difficult to express any opinion in a minute, it is understood that the legislative activities cannot be accomplished with this method. Parliament's solution to this problem is to separate MPs into groups and give them rights in groups. These groups may be political party groups (as in Austria) or parliamentary groups (as in Spain). In both cases, MPs can participate in legislative activities using the rights granted to the groups they belong to. In a democratic and just parliament the total working time should be allocated among these groups in proportion to their number of members. In Spain all MPs are members of parliamentary group and in Austria all MPs are members of political party group, and therefore it can be said that the requirements of the principles of democracy and justice, in this respect, have been fulfilled in these parliaments. It is difficult to say that the requirements of these principles have been fulfilled during establishment of committees in the GNAT, because non-member of political party groups and independent MPs do not have a right to be a member of a committee in general. However, these members have limited rights to participate in certain activities of the General Assembly, as a requirements of the article 95 of the Constitution. Therefore, it is possible to say that the 95th article is applied partly, and in the committees and the General Assembly differently. On the other hand, it cannot be said that the implementation in the General Assembly fully guarantees the rights of these members. For example, according to article 72 of the RP xvii, these MPs have right to speak in their own name. However, this right is not peculiar to these members. Every member, regardless of whether he is a member of a political party group, may use it: In the end of the debates, two MPs have right to speak on behalf of themselves. 208 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey According to article 61 of the RP, the floor is given in sequence of enrollment or requests. So when more than two members wish to speak, the right of speech belongs to the first two members who makes a request; if there is more than two requests at the same time, it is necessary to draw lots among them. This means that, here, the rights of MPs who are not a member of a political party group or who are independent MPS are not guaranteed because this right may also be used by the members of a political party groups on behalf of themselves. Therefore, it is possible to summarize the results of the application of Article 95 as follows: (1) It is not implemented in the committees in respect of non-group MPs, (2) its implementation in the committees is different from its implementation in the General Assembly, (3) non-group MPs can speak on the General Assembly, provided that they make a request before others, (4) if the right to speak is used by member of political party groups, non-group MPs cannot speak. As a result, the representation principle is the precondition for the principles of democracy and justice and a tool to prevent the domination of big political parties. In order to ensure the full implementation of the representation principle, the right to participate in legislative activities in proportion to their power should be given not only to MPs who are members of a political party group, but also to MPs who are not members of a political party group. . For this reason, the regulation in the RP should be amended by taking into consideration examples such as Spain and Austria. Domination problem in the management of committee According to RP (art. 24) each committee elects its chairperson, vice-chairperson, spokesperson, and secretaryxviii. Quorum for… election is the absolute majority of total number of the committee members… The vote of the absolute majority of the members present is required to be elected. Figure 6. Bureau of the committee As it is explained above, all memberships in the committees are allocated to political party groups. As a natural consequence of this, the ruling party precisely gets the majority in all committees. To be elected as chairperson, vice-chairperson, spokesperson, and secretary of the committee the vote of the absolute majority of the members present is required. Therefore it can be easily supposed that the ruling party has the power to elect bureau of committee in all committees. In practice all the members of this bureau are elected from the ruling party; winner takes all. This means that the committee management is in full control of the ruling party group. The following quotation from a report that criticizes this practice, proposes some solutions by giving some examples: Committee chairmanships should be allocated proportionately to the size of the parliamentary groups. This would constitute a clear departure from the current Turkish practice of „winner takes all‟ when it comes to committee chairmanships and also the chairmanships of inter-parliamentary groups. …It is also worth considering whether to adopt the practice found in many EU countries, such as Germany, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain or, more recently, France, to reserve the chairmanship of the Plan and Budget Committee to a representative of the largest opposition party. In the UK, the Rules of Procedure of the House of Commons require that the chairman of the Public Accounts Committee be an opposition Member. The desired effect is to encourage „responsible‟ opposition. (Irwin, Goetz, Karpen, Hénin, & Nabais, 2010, s. 32) It is possible to argue that Article 95 of the Constitution is once again violated here because as a requirement of the representation principle, management of the committee should belong to all groups of political parties, which are being represented in the committee. If the administration of the committee is dominated by the ruling party group, it means that political party groups do not participate in legislative work in proportion to their powers. Considering the suggestions made in the above quotation, different solutions can be found for the problem: Solution 1: Proportional allocation of committee chairmanships 209 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey In order for the administration of the committees to be made in proportion to the powers of the political party groups, the total committees‟ chairmanships should be distributed among the political party groups in proportion to their powers. For example if there is 20 standing committees and the proportions of existing four political party groups are, consecutively, 60, 20, 10, 10, then the number of chairmanship for these parties will be 12, 4, 2, 2. In other words, in this case, 12 of 20 chairmanships will be given to the ruling political party and 8 chairmanship will be allocated among the opposition parties. Solution 2: Reserving some committee chairmanships for opposition party groups In this solution, instead of randomly distributing committee chairmanships to political party groups, it can be considered that the chairmanships of the oversight committees is given to the opposition parties and the other committee chairmanships to the ruling party group. Solution 3: Sharing the memberships of the bureau of the committee In this solution, the bureau memberships can be distributed to political party groups at every committee. In this case it is likely that the committee chairmanships will be given to the ruling party and other tasks will be shared among the opposition parties. This is the least desirable solution, because the most influential figure in committees is the chairman of the committee. Undoubtedly these solution are proposals and these proposals can be further developed. If the majority, and therefore administrative body of a committee belongs to a single political party group, the committee may become under the domination of the ruling party. In this context, Wheare‟s question that „is it (the committee) doing the job? should be asked one more time. Because under the domination of a ruling party committee may become a mere screen and it can be said that the committee is not doing its job. Civic Participation Problems Committees can play a decisive role not only in permitting parliamentary consideration of executive proposals but also in mobilizing the consent of interest groups (Marsh, 1986, s. 28). NGO participation or civic participation, on the one hand, provides knowledge and information that is required for developing the draft bills and, on the other hand, it supports the legitimation of the political system. Therefore most of democratic countries have developed some methods to obtain knowledge, information and experiences of specialists, private persons and organized structures as witnesses or specialists. For example in the USA each political party group has right to invite witnesses in the hearings and witnesses have to submit their written opinion before the hearing. Witnesses are questioned by the political party representatives after their short presentations. Witnesses have to comply with some rules that aim to have a more disciplined and therefore effective debate (Bakırcı, Yasama Erki ve Yasa Yapma Sanatı, 2012, s. 318-325). However, it should be noted that there may be a different hearing practice in each country. For example in Sweden, the chairman of the committee prepares the questions that will be addressed to the witnesses. (Karamustafaoğlu, 1965, s. 172-174) As it is mentioned in the introduction, RP does not contain any rules concerning civic participation. Article 30 of the RP was interpreted in such a way as to allow NGO representatives to be invited to the committee meetings by the committee chairpersons. According to this article: The Prime Minister or a minister may attend committee meetings. The Prime Minister or the minister may authorize a high rank public official in writing to represent him/her, if he/she deems it necessary. /Committees may invite experts in order to consult their views. The experts mentioned in this article are, of course, not experts in NGO‟s. These are experts or bureaucrats who may come to the committee meeting with government representatives. However, with the widespread involvement of NGOs in all parliaments in the democratic world, the concept of experts has begun to be understood to include experts from NGOs. But, inviting NGO representatives to committee meeting by using the concept of experts is a matter of interpretation and this interpretation may vary from one committee chairman to another. The invitation of an NGO representative based on such an interpretation has no possibility of providing a systematic NGO participation. Therefore, NGO participation based on such an interpretation has led to various problems in the practice of committees in GNAT: (1) The different interpretations of the Committee chairpersons on this issue have led to different practices among committees. If a chairman of a committee is against NGO participation, there is no provision that would force him to invite NGO 210 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey representatives. In other words, the non-invitation of NGO representatives to committee meetings does not legally result in the violation of the RP. Therefore NGO participation has been left to the discretion of the chairpersons of the committees and the chairpersons of the committees, naturally, used different discretionary powers because each one's attitude towards the NGO participation may be different. In addition, committee chairs may invite NGOs to the meeting according to their political preferences, which prevents the expected benefit from NGO participation. (2) NGO participation in the same committees may vary by legislative terms because every newly elected chairperson of the committee may have a different view on the participation of NGOs than the former. (3) There is no NGO database in the committees and each committee determines the NGOs to be invited to the meeting in its distinctive method. Some committees have a short list about NGO's that has already joined their meetings. Some others are trying to determine concerned NGOs by internet research. Sometimes the invitation is sent to the NGOs, which are recognized by the committee chairperson, members and officials. Some very strong NGOs have permanent representatives in the Parliament and it is much easier for them to participate in committee meetings. This situation increases the overrepresentation of strong NGOs. Thus, the imbalance about the expression of social interests in parliament increases even more. (4) It is not clear whether the invited NGO representatives will be given the right to speak because there is no provision on NGO participation in RP. Moreover, if the NGO representatives are given the right to speak, the duration of this talk is uncertain. In practice, NGO representatives are given no say or they are given a limited time due to time constraints in the committees. This often leads to the rightful reaction and dissatisfaction of NGO representatives. (5) It is not clear that expressed opinions by NGO representatives on the committee meeting will reflect on the commission report. This breaks NGOs' enthusiasm for participation in committee meetings. These criticisms on NGO participation can be further increased. However, the criticisms made up to this point are sufficient to reveal the need for regulation in the RP that allows a systematic NGO participation, such as hearing (Bakırcı, 2012, s. 318-325). It is difficult to argue that there is a democratic legislative process in committees without such systematic NGO participation. Because mechanisms such as hearing do not only create an opportunity for witnesses to compete against each other but also provide the publicity of the considerations. (Bradshaw & Pring, 1981, s. 247) General problematic aspects: mechanisms to accelerate legislative process As it is quoted from Wheare above, in judging the work and structure of the committees, we always have to take into account the institutional system to which they belong (Wheare, 1955, s. 2-3). Because problems in the General Assembly and in the whole legislative body certainly are reflected in the committees. It is inevitable that a tendency and attitude emerging in the General Assembly over time also influences the committees. Therefore, in this study, which examines the problems in the committees, the problems that arise in the General Assembly will be reviewed in brief. One of the most prominent features of the GNAT in recent years is the need to work more and more due to the growing need for legislation. xix According to Table 1, the average annual working time in the 10 year period between 1984 and 1994 was around 500 hours, which increased to 750 hours in 2004-2014. This means that the working hours increased more than 50% from 1984 to 2004. Considering certain years, it can be seen that the working hours doubled: for example in 1987 the working hours were 430 hours and in 2009 it increased to 854 hours. It may be instructive to make a comparison to show this upward trend in working hours in GNAT. However, when comparing, it is necessary to be cautious about the statistics because of the system differences between the two parliaments. For this reason, it is necessary to draw attention to some points when we make comparison between GNAT and UK Parliament in Table 1. (1) We couldn‟t find working hours for House of Commons before the year 2004 from reliable sources, except the year 1983. The figures after 2004 were taken from the official web site of the UK Parliament. (2) The figures for the UK Parliament may include some activities that are not included in the figures for the GNAT, such as the time taken in the dinner/lunch. The figures for the TGNA indicate the time spent completely in the General Assembly. This may be a reason why the working time in the UK Parliament seems to be a little higher than GNAT. (3) During the election years, the total number of working hours can fall due to the election. Therefore, from comparing these years any result cannot be derived. When these two countries are compared, it can be said that the British parliament worked more than the Turkish parliament in 1983 and after 2004. However, in the UK Parliament, it is possible that the figures may appear bloated due to the fact that some hours not spent in the General Assembly are considered to be spent there. Thus, it can be said that starting from the 2000‟s, the working hours of both Parliaments are very close to each other. For example, the annual average of 10 years between 2004 and 2014 is 840 hours for the GNAT, while it 211 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey is 914 hours for the UK Parliament. However, when the increase in working hours over time is examined, it can be concluded that the increase in the British Parliament has lagged behind the increase in the Turkish Parliament. The annual average of the last four years between 2013 and 2017 is 1001 hours for the GNAT, while it is 945 hours for the UK Parliament. Finally, it is necessary to add here that the working time in the GNAT has been doubled with the 2017 RP Amendments. Therefore, it can be said that the figures that will take place in the tables for the next years will vary drastically. Terms/Parliaments 1983-1984 1984-1985 1985-1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1988-1989 1989-1990 1990-1991 1991-1992 1992-1993 1993-1994 1994-1995 1995-1996xxiii 1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 Table 1. Working hours in GNAT and the UK Parliament xx GNAT COMMONS Terms/Parliaments GNAT 222 600xxi 2004-2005 701 540 2005-2006 747 586 2006-2007 701 590 2007-2008 810 430 2008-2009 589 453 2009-2010 854 460 2010-2011 573 491 2011-2012 1297 574 2012-2013 1327 683 2013-2014 1073 719 2014-2015 830 1024 2015-2016 1137 0 2016-2017 964 707 781 Total 24018 64 Average per year 882 700 722 2004-2014 8399 610 Average of 2004840 2014 603 2013-2017 4004 629 Average of 20131001 2017 COMMONS 459 1372 926 1110 907 445 2006xxii 903 1011 823 1012 934 11908 916 9139 914 3780 945 The GNAT did not only increase its working time to enact more laws, but also tried to find ways to speed up legislative process to produce more laws during the same working hours and after 2000‟s, it developed various acceleration methods. Three of these methods, supporting each other, have become able to determine the entire legislative process. These methods are (1) bag bills, (2) basic laws and, (3) the bills in the appearance of the proposals. Now these acceleration methods will be briefly reviewed. Bag Bills Turkey, after the 1990‟s, and in the early of 2000‟s was on the verge of a transformation. One of the important developments in this period was the EU membership and the GNAT, as a candidate country parliament, had to take some steps in a specific timetable. Some laws, including the Constitution, had to be amended on a timetable. So, GNAT tried to find some ways to speed up the legislative process. One of the solutions was to offer the changes that needed to be made in different laws, by combining them under a package. Such laws may be called as the packet law. Such a type of law was the result of a necessity, because to be accepted as a candidate country, Turkey had to complete its homework within a limited time and there was not enough time to put into force the required legislation in the committed timetable. Although these packet laws were initially used for a very good purpose, they caused the emergence of bag laws over time. The decisive difference between the packet law and the bag law is that the package law has a specified common theme in it, while there is no any theme in the bag law. The common theme of the packet laws that issued during that time was the legal regulations required by the Copenhagen Criteria, which were preconditions of EU membership.xxiv The aim of these Criteria was to raise democratic standards of Turkey to the level of European countries and they, for this purpose, required a large number of amendments relating to laws about fundamental rights and freedoms. In this context law of 4771 (date: 03.08.2002) amended some articles of 11 laws (Law of Association, Law of Foundation, Law Concerning Meeting and Demonstrations, Turkish Criminal Law… etc.) to realize these Criteria. Soon after they started to be used for this purpose, they started to be used for another purpose: The 212 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey ruling parties were discovered they are able to enact a large number of regulations in a shorter period of time. After this discovery, the packet laws was transformed into bag laws and spread. The bag law has now become indispensable methods legislative process. When the government wishes to make amendments to a large number of laws, it does so by combining them in a single text, rather than presenting them as separate draft laws. Bag laws provide crucial advantages for the governments by bypassing the legislative process in various ways. A bag bill, first of all, bypasses some competences of the Speaker. Because the Speaker has the authority to determine main committee and secondary committees, but she/he cannot use this authority when a bag bill is under consideration. For example, for three ordinary laws, the Speaker has to determine three main committee. However, when these three bills are presented under a single text, the Chairman can determine only one main committee. Thus, the Speaker's authority to refer to other two committees is taken away and the process is bypassed. Within this bypassing process, the Speaker‟s authority to determine a large number of secondary committee is also bypassed. Secondly some committees are bypassed from this process because a bill that would be referred to them in the normal process, may not be referred to them when it is submitted under a bag bill. Thirdly bag bill method result in the violation of RP because it is thought that this method is an exceptional way and therefore some additional exceptions may be used. According to the article 87 of the RP motions of amendment constituting a new bill by making an addition to laws or amending laws other than those within the scope of the bills being debated shall not be processed. This obviously means that the laws that are not included in the draft bills that are under debate cannot be changed by the committee or General Assembly.xxv Motion of amendments of this kind cannot be submitted to the committee or General Assembly. But in practice, when a bag bill is under debate, all the limits are removed. In this regard, the following logic is accepted: Bag bills are not defined in RP, Constitution or any other legal text. For this reason, no legal limit can be imposed on them. Bag laws are an exceptional method of legislation born with practice and so the legal limits cannot be applied to them. As a consequence of this logic, the number of articles can be increased by a surprising amount in committees and the General Assembly. For example, while there were only 120 articles in a draft bill, which was the basis of Law No. 6111 (dated 13 February 2011), 114 articles have been added to it in the committee and General Assembly and it was doubled. 59 of them added by the committee and others by the General Assembly. Only the title of the bill was three pages. The regulation, which was adopted as a 234-articles law, changed 7 different decrees with 66 different laws. In the ordinary legislative procedure, 66 different draft bill had to be presented, and these bills had to be debated at 66 committees; the General Assembly had to debate 66 different bills. Thanks to the bag law, all these negotiations were reduced to one negotiation. Above it was said that bag laws should not be considered a category in the classification of laws and therefore RP of Spain Parliament does not contain any regulation about bag laws. In fact, this method does not exist in any of the countries that use democratic legislation process. The omnibus bill in the United States, at first glance, resembles the bag law, but they differentiate from each other for an important reason. Omnibus bill is defined as the legislation that addresses numerous and not necessarily related subjects, issues, and programs, and therefore is usually highly complex and long (Sinclair, 1997, s. 64). Actually, bag bill also addresses numerous and not necessarily related subjects, issues, and programs, and therefore is usually highly complex and long. However, there is a substantial difference between them. Bag bills are prepared when there is no consensus among the government and opposition; by using bag bill mechanism, it becomes possible to legislate in a short time some regulations, which would otherwise take too long to legislate. However, omnibus bill requires the existence of a consensus between the president, party leaders and members as a precondition. Presidents who favor only one part or some parts of omnibus bill are forced to sign a larger bill that includes articles they find distasteful. Party leaders and members do the same. The President and Congress have mutual advantage in enacting an omnibus bill. Although both of them may benefit from their use, they see omnibus legislating as a necessary evil, because otherwise the president most probably would vetoes the bill and Congress would not enact the proposal of the president that is included in the bill (Krutz, 2001, s. 210-211). Hence, while omnibus bills reflect a consensus between the Congress and the President, the bag bills are the result of the disagreement between the government and the opposition. As a result, omnibus bills are indispensable tools in the operation of presidential systems. xxvi On the contrary parliamentary systems have to abandon bag law mechanism to have a system based on reconciliation. For this reason, it is a logical mistake to try to legitimize bag laws by claiming that the bag laws resembles the omnibus in the US. Consequently, bag law methods must be immediately banned for democratic legislative processes both at committees and at the General Assembly. xxvii 213 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Basic Bills Second acceleration method discovered in the same period is the basic law method. The concept of basic law in GNAT is based on the concept of organic law in various parliaments. In these parliaments, organic law is a medium category between constitution and ordinary laws. It has lower importance than constitution but it is more important than ordinary laws. Generally, laws that are related to fundamental rights and public freedoms, the statutes of autonomy, the general electoral system, public organization and other important issues are under this category. According to Spanish Constitution organic laws (ley orgánica) defined as follows (art. 81): (1) Organic acts are those relating to the implementation of fundamental rights and public freedoms, those approving the Statutes of Autonomy and the general electoral system and other laws provided for in the Constitution. (2) The approval, amendment or repeal of organic acts shall require the overall majority of the Members of Congress in a final vote on the bill as a whole. According to French Constitution organic laws (loi organic) defined as follows (art. 46): (1) Acts defined under the Constitution as organic are passed and amended as follows: (2) The Government or Private Member's Bill may only be submitted, on first reading, to the consideration and vote of the Houses after the expiry of the periods set down in the third paragraph of article 42… (3) …in the absence of agreement between the two Assemblies, a bill may be adopted by the National Assembly on final reading only by an absolute majority of its members. (4) Organic laws relating to the Senate must be passed in the same wording by the two Assemblies. (5) Organic laws may be promulgated only after the Constitutional Council has declared them constitutional. According to Constitution of Hungary organic laws (Cardinal acts) defined as follows (art. T): (4) Cardinal Acts shall be Acts, for the adoption or amendment of which the votes of two-thirds of the Members of the National Assembly present shall be required. Finally according to Constitution of Hungary organic laws defined as follows (arts. 164 and 165): Laws originate in the National Assembly and are divided as follows: a. Organic laws, which are those issued in fulfillment of Sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 of Article 159;… The organic laws require for their enactment a favorable vote of the absolute majority of the members of the National Assembly in the second and third reading. When these examples are examined, the common features of organic laws can be shown in this figure: Figure 7. Common features of organic laws The concept of basic the law in the GNAT, despite receiving inspiration from the concept of organic law, carries none of the features set forth herein. On the contrary, the concept of organic law and the concept of basic law in the GNAT have completely opposite features: Basic law is not defined in the Constitution; it is not above ordinary laws hierarchically; it does not require qualified majority; it can be proposed by any MP and most 214 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey importantly can be subject to urgent procedure. In fact, urgent procedure is the most decisive feature of basic law in the GNAT; basic law can be defined as the law that is subject to urgent procedure. Therefore, Neziroğlu defines basic law as with its purpose: It is purpose is to speed up the negotiation process of comprehensive bills at the General Assembly (2008, s. 411). This definition is undoubtedly compatible with practice, but it has no any common point with the organic law described above. As mentioned above Turkey, after the 1990‟s, and in the early of 2000‟s was on the verge of a rapid transformation. Comprehensive basic laws such as criminal law, trade law and civil law, which were issued in 1920s, had to be changed. However, the GNAT did not have sufficient time to enact these comprehensive laws through its current working method, because there was no any rule for urgent procedure in 1973 RP. The solution was found during the 1996 amendments in the RP, and the RP was supplemented by an article (art. 91) bearing the title of the Basic Laws. This first regulation was really prepared with a democratic understanding and it was very reasonable: The Advisory Board of GNAT would, by unanimous consensus, set specific methods of negotiations. However, this unanimity could not be ensured and the article 91 of was amended by ruling party in 2001. But the amended article still was containing a democratic essence, because upon failing to compromise in the Advisory Board, the General Assembly would have to reach a two-thirds majority to adopt basic law method. These unanimous consensus and two-thirds majority were closing the gap between basic law and organic laws, because these majorities had the power to change the Constitution. Unfortunately, the Constitutional Court annulled this arrangement and led to the adoption of an article with less democratic nature. The article, before reaching its today‟s shape, amended five times by the TGNA and annulled three times by the Constitutional Court. In the current article 91, the basic law is defined as follows: a) Bills amending and putting into force laws, including general principles, that systematically amend a particular branch of law, completely or comprehensively; relating to a considerable part of personal and social life; indicating the basic concepts of special laws to which the bill relates, ensuring that the special laws are implemented in harmony, necessitating the protection of integrity and relations between the articles in terms of areas it regulates; having been subjected to special debating and voting procedure in previous legislative process; and those bills amending the Rules of Procedure, completely or comprehensively This definition at the beginning of the article resembles the definitions of the organic laws examined above. However, this is illusory. To see this illusion, we need to read the rest of the article: (they) may be decided to be debated in the Plenary as chapters, and which articles will be included in chapters having no more than thirty articles upon the recommendation of the Government, the primary committee or the party groups, and the unanimous proposal of the Board of Spokespersons… b) If no unanimous decision is taken by the Board of Spokespersons, the Plenary may decide on the implementation of the legislative method stated in paragraph (a) upon the proposal of political party groups. The conclusion is that: The absolute majority of members present at the General Assembly have the power to determine whether any matter, irrespectively with its content, should be negotiated as a basic law. In other words, the determination of the basic law is neither an act of the Constitution, nor it is left to the decision of the qualified majority; each matter can be negotiated as a basic law by simple majority of the General Assembly. (Tanör & Yüzbaşıoğlu, 2013, s. 295) The main reason why a bill is intended to be discussed as a basic law is that this method saves a considerable amount of time. Majorities in the General Assembly tend to use this mechanism for every bill and turn it into a general method of the legislative process because it provides a very advantageous situation. (Bakırcı, 2008, s. 413-429).xxviii According to article 91, (they) may be decided to be debated in the Plenary as chapters, and which articles will be included in chapters having no more than thirty articles...In such a case, the chapters shall be debated separately, in line with the procedure on debating the articles without reading the articles and the articles in the chapter shall be voted separately…Deputies have the right to table two motions on the article…In this case, the bill is negotiated not article-by-article but as section-by-section that cannot be exceed 30 articles; the limit for motions of amendment to any ordinary bill is 7 but for basic laws, it is reduced to 2. The basic law mechanism was originally used for comprehensive laws but due to the advantages it provides, it is now being used for the bill containing a small number of articles. For example Law no 5983 (concerned cooperatives) and Law No. 6005 (concerned universities), although had, respectively, only 11 and 8 articles, were accepted as basic laws (see Table 2). Basic law is becoming a general legislation method: in the 21th 215 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey legislative period just 7 basic laws (included 1567 articles) enacted in GNAT, whereas in the 22th and 23th legislative periods, these numbers were, respectively, 29 (included 1589 articles) and 45 (included 4823 articles). Table 2. Some examples concerning the numbers and section of basic laws xxix Date Number of Number of Number of articles in articles sections each section 20.11.2007 32 2 17, 15 20.11.2007 65 3 20, 28, 17 25.12.2007 654 22 1-21=30's, 22= 24 16.07.2008 34 2 17,17 24.06.2008 83 3 30, 30, 23 08.07.2008 1535 52 1-50=30's, 51, 52=20 26.05.2009 24 2 12, 14 26.05.2009 31 2 15, 16 26.05.2009 61 3 30, 28, 3 26.05.2009 649 22 1-21=30's, 22= 19 26.05.2009 96 4 27, 25, 18, 26 27.05.2010 14 2 7, 7 13.07.2010 14 2 7, 7 08.06.2010 20 2 10, 10 30.06.2010 15 2 9, 6 13.07.2010 24 2 12, 12 Government Bills in the Appearance of Proposal The third method mechanism concerns the form of legislative text. According to the Constitution (art. 88) the Council of Ministers and deputies are empowered to introduce bills. The second paragraph of the same article mentions government bills and private members‟ bills. So there are two sources of laws, one of which is the government bill, the second is the private member‟s bill or the proposal of deputy or proposal. Briefly, the government presents the bill while the MP presents the proposal. It is very easy to prepare a proposal in a very short time by an MP. But the same thing cannot be said for the government bill. Regulation on Principles of Preparation of Legislation, which was issued by Prime Ministry, has established some rules that are compulsory to comply with. These rules can be summarized under three headings as in the following figure: Figure 8. The compulsory activities in legislation preparation The preparation of a government bill may take a lot of time because some steps need to be taken such as ensuring NGO participation, assessing regulatory impact, using better regulation techniques, persuading all relevant bureaucrats in relevant ministries, signing of the draft by all ministers, etc. Performing regulatory impact analysis requires different amounts of time depending on the content and extent of the regulation. In order for NGOs to be able to submit their opinion, the draft should be sent to them and a period of time must be granted to them for submission of their opinion. Moreover, after NGO views have arrived, it takes a while to reflect these views into the draft. A bill usually concerns more than one ministry, so every ministry's opinion needs to be asked. For this purpose, relevant ministerial representatives may need to come together and negotiate, and these negotiations may need to be repeated. These negotiations may require different amounts of time depending on the content and extent of the regulation. Finally, for the use of better regulation techniques, specialists may need certain amount of time. As a result, all these activities require a certain amount of time during the preparation phase. 216 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Above, it was stated that in the course of EU accession negotiations, the Assembly had to comply with a time schedule and had to complete certain regulations over a period of time. The GNAT had also taken the decision of election and the government had not enough time to prepare the bills containing the required changes. It should be remembered that one of the tools discovered at the time was the packet law mechanism. The second of the tools was the bill in the appearance of proposal (teklif görünümlü tasarı) mechanism.xxx In fact, these two mechanisms were used together at that time: The amendments envisaged in numerous laws relating to fundamental rights and freedoms were collected in a single text (in a packet law) and the text prepared in this way was submitted in the form of a proposal instead of a bill. The prepared text was not a private members proposal in respect of its essence and was completely a government bill, but it was submitted as a private member proposal to shorten the legislative process. In other words, the bill was submitted in the form of a proposal to bypass the preparation phase of the bill. When this method is used, the preparation process for the government phase is completely skipped and the prepared text is signed by a deputy and submitted to the Speaker as a private member bill. This was the period when a critical decision on whether or not EU accession talks would start would be given. These three mechanism were discovered in the same time period. The negotiation for a critical decision on whether or not EU accession talks would begin and ruling parties in GNAT announced their will for a new election. So three things were done at the same time: (1) The amendments to the law on fundamental rights and freedoms were gathered under a single law, so the way of the bag law was opened. (2) The proposal of the election was also added to this text. (3) These changes were submitted in the format of a proposal instead of the format of a bill. Shortly thereafter, the basic law mechanism was discovered, and it began to operate with the first two mechanisms. Thus these tools, which were initially used for EU membership, have started to be used for ordinary legislation over time because the legislative process accelerated geometrically with their use. All these tools show that the legislative process in GNAT has evolved in a certain direction. Here, it is possible to make an assessment of this evolution. In 2017, however, a very important change was made in the 1982 Constitution, and immediately thereafter, a comprehensive amendment was made in 1973 RP. With the amendment made in the Constitution, the parliamentary system was abandoned and the Turkish Type Presidency System was adopted. Therefore, an evaluation to be made without considering these amendments to the Constitution and the RP will be incomplete. 2017 amendments By 18 articles 18 of Law No. 6771 some amendments were made to 1982 Constitution on April 16, 2017. xxxi Almost 80 articles of the Constitution were amended by these 18 articles and the parliamentary system was abandoned. The new system that was introduced by the amendments is called the Turkish Type Presidency System or the Republican Presidency System since it is not a complete Presidency System. According to new provisional article 21 of the Constitution no later than six months after the promulgation of this Act, GNAT shall adopt the RP …required by the amendments made by this Act. As a requirement of this provision, the RP had to be amended and on July 27, 2017, the RP of the GNAT was amended with the decision numbered 1160. Interestingly, however, these changes in the RP were not the amendments required by the new provisional article 21 of Constitutional amendments. Therefore, it is expected that the amendments required by the provisional Article 21 of the Constitution will be adopted soon. However, the meaning of the amendments in the RP that are adopted on July 27, 2017 may be meaningful in the above-mentioned evolution of the legislative process and they are therefore worthy of examination. Therefore, the amendments to Constitution and the amendments to the RP will be briefly reviewed in the following subtitles. However, this revision will be extremely limited depending on the purpose of the study. 2017 Constitutional Amendments Here, because of the purpose and scope of the study, it is not possible to examine the whole of the 2017 amendments; I will focus on three important amendments. The organic relationship between executive and legislative One of the most important provisions of the 2017 Constitutional amendments is that the executive power is vested only to the President of Republic (art. 104/1). The previous version of the article 8 of the Constitution was as follows: 217 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Executive power and function Article 8- Executive power and function shall be exercised and carried out by the President of the Republic and the Council of Ministers in conformity with the Constitution and laws. The new version of the article 8 is as follows: Executive power and function Article 8- Executive power and function shall be exercised and carried out by the President of the Republic in conformity with the Constitution and laws. Due to this amendment, there will no longer be a Council of Ministers in the Turkish constitutional system and there will be no such notions as: “Formation of the Council of Ministers,” “vote of confidence,” “motion of censure,” “collective responsibility of the Council of Ministers,” “authorization of Council of Ministers by GNAT to issue decrees having the force of law,” and so on. This implies an organic separation between the legislative and executive bodies. Given this organic separation, it can be said that the new system has become a classic presidential system. There are, however, three important regulations that prevent the system from being named a typical or classical presidential system. The first regulation is as follows: The GNAT may decide to renew the elections by the three- fifth majority of the total number of its members. In this case general election of GNAT and the presidential election shall be held together. If the President of the Republic decides to renew the elections, the general election of the GNAT and the election of President of the Republic shall be held together (art. 116/1-2). The most prominent feature of presidential systems is that the executive power cannot be dismissed by the legislative, except in rare cases of impeachment, between elections. On the other hand the survival of the legislature is independent of president (Linz, 1994, s. 6) (Boyunsuz, 2016, s. 4-5) (Teziç, 2013, s. 504) (Özbudun, 2005, s. 106) (Yılmaz, 2018, s. 76). In other words, when the president has the authority to dissolve the assembly, or vice versa, the system cease to be a presidential system, even if the other features require a presidential systemxxxii (Bakırcı, 1994, s. 66). As Shugart and Carey state (1992, s. 18), in the beginning with The Federalist, the central defining characteristic of presidentialism has been the separation of legislative from executive powers. Although separation of powers in the presidential systems does not mean a complete separation between executive and legislative, there is a critical distinction between the origin and survival of the two branches. For example in USA the presidential veto is an executive intrusion in the legislative process; and the requirement of Senate ratification of treaties allows for legislative influence on the executive. But if the executive and legislative branches can decide to renew each other‟s election, it is difficult to claim about any distinction between survival of legislative and executive. In other words necessary distinction between survival of legislative and executive does not require to abolish the checks and balances between the two branches. The rationale for separating the sources of the origin and the survival of the executive and legislative is to ensure that each branch can impose checks on the other without fear of jeopardizing its own existence (Shugart & Carey, 1992, s. 18-19). As Yılmaz has stated (2018, s. 80), the powers to dissolve the legislative and renew the elections that would be added to the disproportionate powers the president would obtain over the legislative branch… are observed in only a few Latin American countries without a good democratic record. Because in such a case, the executive can establish control over the legislature and thus, may cause the balance between powers to deteriorate in favor of execution. It should also be mentioned here that the dissolving authority that granted to the President of the Republic and granted to the Turkish Grand National Assembly in the Turkishtype presidential system has not the same influence: The president can dissolve elections on his own will, but GNAT will have to find three-fifth majority of its total number, which is not easy to be provided. The relationship between President of Republic and his political party The second regulation concerns the connection of President of the Republic with his party. According to previous regulation if the elected President of the Republic is a member of a party, his/her relationship with his party shall be severed and his/her membership of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey shall cease (art. 101/4). The regulation after amendment is that the elected President‟s membership of the GNAT shall cease. This means that the President of the Republic may, legally, have a tie with his political party. Given the disciplined party structure in Turkey, it can be foreseen that the president may be influential on Parliament 218 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey through his political party. On the other hand in case of renewal of the elections both elections have to be made together. On the other hand, according to Constitutional amendments, when the elections are renewed, the simultaneous elections of both bodies, namely the legislative and executive, will be a necessity and this will further increase the potential impact of the executive. In fact, one of the important features of the US presidential system is that it is based on undisciplined party structure. The absence of ideological polarization in the society leads to undisciplined party structure and this undisciplined party structure allows the government to reach consensus, even when the legislative and executive branches are controlled by different parties (Bakırcı, 1994, s. 98) (Özbudun, 2005, s. 108) (Teziç, 2013, s. 511) (Yılmaz, 2018, s. 17). The widespread belief is that in case of the minority presidency, the existence of undisciplined parties facilitates the relationship between legislative and executive, preventing the system from clogging (Eren, 2002, s. 46). Existence of undisciplined, nonideological, pragmatic, heterogeneous parties is the guarantee of reconciliation between political parties. For this reason, it is a fact that sometimes, the political party, where the President is a member, does not support a certain policy of the President but that this policy is supported by members of other political parties (Özbudun, 2005, s. 108). It is also impossible to talk about legislative political party groups, in the sense of parliamentary regimes. Democrats or Republicans do not act as a group in Congress; there is no concept of group decision. Parties cannot take binding and compelling decisions to take common positions on certain issues for their members in the legislature. For any member of a political party, it is possible to adopt a different opinion from the majority of the party or the president of the party, or even act together with the members of the other parties in some issues. This is not the reason for the being exported from party membership or for a disciplinary penalty (Boyunsuz, 2016, s. 24). This undisciplined party structure has a different function when the president and the majority of Congress are from (1) the same party and (2) different parties. When both belong to the same party, the members of his own party may contribute to opposition to create a balance against the President. Checks and balances are central to the conception of presidential government; the rationale for separating the origin and survival of executive and legislative powers is to ensure the viability of mutual checks. (Shugart & Carey, 1992, s. 19-22) and undisciplined party structure enables the Congress to become a mechanism of checks and balances. When these belong to different political parties, the undisciplined party structure allows some members of the majority party to support some of the President's policies and this enables the presidential system to survive based on democratic principles. As for Turkey it is stated that simultaneous formation of the executive and legislative branches and disciplined party structure, together, will destroy the rational of the typical presidential system. Turkey has a political culture and tradition that have adopted a strict disciplined party structure, and due to this strict party discipline, the president, who will be the executive and the party leader at the same time, will have a strict control over legislature (Köker, 2013, s. 10-20). On the other hand, if the President and the majority of the GNAT do not belong to the same political party, some members of the majority party will not be able to support the some of the President's policies because of this disciplined party structure. The disciplined party structure prevents the President, who does not have the majority of the Parliament, from finding the majority he is seeking to support his policies. The president's strong connection with his party and the simultaneous election of both bodies strengthens party discipline and the strong party discipline makes the functioning of the presidential system difficult. Legislative power of the President of the Republic: Legislative Decrees The third regulation that prevent the system from being named a typical presidential system is that President of the Republic has the power to issue presidential decrees. In fact, the veto is one of the basic legislative powers that presidents may be constitutionally allocated in the presidential system; the veto is the most prevalent, flexible, and routine tool by which presidents can affect the lawmaking process (Shugart & Carey, 1992, s. 133, 138). But the presidential veto does not represents an independent legislative power but it represent executive intrusion in the legislative process. The fact that the President can issue a decree with the power of the law accepted by legislature means that the functional separation of powers has removed. The common feature of the presidential systems, however, is that they must have functional separation of powers as well as organic separation of powers. According to the new article 104 of the Constitution, the President of the Republic may issue presidential decrees on the matter regarding executive power. These presidential decrees are strictly different than the 219 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey decrees having the force of law that were regulated by the article 91 of 1982 Constitution. According to that regulation, the GNAT could empower the Council of Ministers to issue decrees having the force of law. The empowering law would define the purpose, scope, and principles of the decree having the force of law, the operative period of the empowering law, and whether more than one decree will be issued within the same period. For the presidential decrees there is no need of such an empowering law issued by the GNAT. Moreover decrees having the force of law would be submitted to the GNAT on the day of their publication in the Official Gazette, and there is no such a submission requirement for the presidential decrees. Therefore, it can be said that the President of the Republic has the legislative power beside the executive power. The Constitution has foreseen various restrictions for the presidential decrees: 1. The fundamental rights, individual rights and duties included in the first and second chapters and the political rights and duties listed in the fourth chapter of the second part of the Constitution, shall not be regulated by a presidential decree. 2. No presidential decree shall be issued on the matters which are stipulated in the Constitution to be regulated exclusively by law. 3. In case of discrepancy between provisions of the presidential decrees and the laws, the previsions of the laws shall prevail. 4. A presidential decree shall become null and void if the GNAT enacts a law on the same matter. However, when the President of the Republic is also president of the ruling party the in the legislature, the majority in the legislature would not likely object to any presidential decree, and the legislature would be rendered dysfunctional, controlled in by the executive. There is no doubt that such a result is contrary to the separation of powers. On the other hand there is no any authority to decide on the discrepancy between provisions of the presidential decrees and the laws. Similarly there is no any authority to decide on a presidential decree shall become null and void if the GNAT enacts a law on the same matter (Yılmaz, 2018, s. 83). If the GNAT enacts a law on the same matter with the presidential decree, in such a situation, in the cases before the local courts, there is a possibility that each court can make different decision and these different decisions can lead to justice being damaged in practice. Therefore Yılmaz recommend that (2018, s. 83), the use of the presidential decree should be limited to administrative regulations. Consequently, it can be argued that the 2017 Constitution amendments strengthened the domination of the executive over the legislature, in accordance with 2017 RP amendments, which will be explained under the subsequent sub heading, as well as the as well as with the past implementations, such as bag law, basic law and the bill in the appearance of proposal. 2017 Amendments of RP As mentioned above, as a requirement of 2017 Constitutional amendments, GNAT had to amend its RP and on July 27, 2017, the RP was amended with the decision numbered 1160. With the decision numbered 1160, 16 articles of RP were amended. These amendments can be classified under three subheadings. Amendment concerning meeting hours According to original rule in 1973 RP unless it coincides with public holidays, the Plenary of the GNAT meets on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays from 3 p.m. to 7 p.m. but upon the proposal of the Board of Spokespersons, the Plenary may change meeting week, day and hours and may decide to meet on other days as well (art. 54). As it is explained in detail above, after the 1990s, the GNAT was under a heavy workload and therefore had to work long hours. By using this article, especially in the last legislative years, it changed meeting week, day and hours and decided to meet on other days as well. However, it was necessary to spend a considerable amount of time in order to make such decisions about meeting hours and days. One of the amendments to the Rules of Procedure in 2017 resolves this problem in a reasonable way. According to the new rule, General Assembly will meet on Tuesdays from 3 p.m. to 9 p.m and on Wednesdays, and Thursdays from 2 p.m. to 9 p.m. Thus the usual weekly working time is almost doubled by increasing it from 12 hours in total to 20 hours. 220 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Amendments concerning prevention the obstruction of opposition The main tasks of the opposition parties in parliament are to check ruling parties, to warn them not to make mistakes, and to have the government inspected. For this aim they use some mechanisms that can be called as obstruction mechanism. Obstruction has been defined as the disposition of the minority or of individuals to resist the will of the House …otherwise than by argument or as …the raising of frivolous objections, constant repetition of the same arguments, and obvious efforts to spin out debate unduly by the introduction of side issues… (Rutherford, 1914, s. 166). Opposition parties in the GNAT as well, naturally used some obstruction methods. A significant portion of the 2017 RP Amendments aims to remove these obstruction methods. Some of these amendments will be summarized here. According to article 57 of the RP twenty deputies might by standing up or tabling a motion during discussions before the voting by show of hands is conducted. The right to ask for a roll call… before the voting by show of hands is conducted has been limited by 2017 amendments. According to new regulation twenty deputies can only ask for a roll call in these cases: (1) Before moving to debate on the articles of the bill by the voting by show of hands, (2) While the whole of the bill is voted by show of hands, and (3) During the voting by show of hands the motions that are subject to negotiation. According to article 81… if voting on the whole or the articles of the bill is not subjected to open vote, it is voted by open ballot in case of a demand of twenty members, otherwise by show of hands. The aim of the regulation is to give the MPs the opportunity to ensure that voting results of important issues are added to the minutes, but it sometimes was used by opposition parties as an obstruction method and therefore limited seriously by 2017 Amendments. As the result of new regulation, articles of the bill cannot be voted by open ballot in case of a demand of twenty members. Article 19 regulates the Advisory of Council. In practice, this article had been applied together with the article 63, which was about speech about procedure. According to these two articles… if the Advisory Council cannot convene in the first call or provide a decision, proposal, or opinion unanimously, the Speaker or the political party groups may individually bring their request to the Plenary directly…(art. 19) and if a request is made for a debate on the procedure, at most two members are given the floor for a period not exceeding ten minutes in favor of or against the issue (art 63). These articles were used as a strong obstruction method by the opposition parties. When no agreement is reached in the advisory body, each political party has the opportunity to take its proposal to the plenary session and in this session four members be given the floor for a period not exceeding ten minutes in favor of and against the issue. In other words it takes 40 minutes for a group proposal to be debated. When there are four group proposal, the required time is 160 minutes, close to 3 hours. When it is perceived that the Plenary‟s daily working time is 4 hours in total, it is understood that how powerful method is this tool of obstruction. 2017 RP amendments seriously limited this method. According to the new regulations, these proposals will not be subject of procedural debates: Each political party group will be given the floor for 5 minutes on its own proposal and the other groups will be given for 3 minutes on the other parties‟ proposals upon their requests. This means that the negotiations on the proposals have been reduced from 40 minutes to 12 minutes. A similar amendment was made in article 63: the speech time in the expression that “at most two members are given the floor for a period not exceeding ten minutes in favour of or against the issue” has been reduced to 3 minutes. This means that, as it was in the previous amendment, the negotiations on the procedure have been reduced from 40 minutes to 12 minutes. Other amendments have been made in the RP that restrict the means of obstruction that are used by opposition parties. Due to the purpose and scope of this study, there is no possibility to enter into more details here. However, it should be noted that an important reason why opposition parties use these means of obstruction is that they do not have a chance to control the government adequately. Therefore, the time saved from the prevention of the obstruction should be, at least partially, allocated to the opposition parties. The lack of such an allocation has disproportionately strengthened the dominance of the ruling party. Amendments concerning the disciplinary provisions Articles 156-163 of the RP contain disciplinary penalties applicable to MPs. In the original 1973 RP, these penalties can be roughly divided into two groups: (1) Breach of peace and working order in General Assembly, (2) Offending, swearing, or threatening some persons or some bodies, such as GNAT or President of the 221 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Republic. These penalties, first of all, aim to secure the working order of the General Assembly and secondly to prevent someone from insulting some important bodies. A new disciplinary punishment was introduced, for the first time, after the amendments to the RP. For the first time, some definitions of administrative structure is defined as disciplinary crime and penalties for these crimes are foreseen. Here, it is possible to see the traces of the effort to dominate certain opposition groups. It can be argued that these amendments, as a whole, are aimed at increasing the domination of the ruling party in the General Assembly. It can be claimed that these amendments are in harmony with the tendency to strengthen domination of the ruling party when considering earlier examined mechanisms, i.e., the bag law, the basic law and the bill in the appearance of the proposal. And one last remark: Two parallel articles of RP are as follows: Unless …the Plenary decides otherwise upon the proposal of Board of Spokespersons, time allotted for speeches on behalf of political party groups, committees and Government is limited to twenty minutes and ten minutes for deputies.(art. 60) Unless the Plenary decides otherwise, upon the proposal of Board of Spokespersons time allotted for speeches on the whole of the bills on behalf of political party groups, committees and Government is limited to twenty minutes and ten minutes for deputies.(art. 81) What does it mean "unless"? Until today, this phrase has not been understood in a way that would allow for a reduction in the duration of speeches that are foreseen in the articles. The ruling party used this phrase, at the General Assembly meeting of April 4, 2018, to shorten the duration of the speeches. Although the proposal of the ruling party in this regard was not processed by the opposition president of the day, it was processed in the next day's meeting that was managed by the Speaker himself. After all, the General Assembly of the GNAT has reached the possibility of restricting the duration of the speeches as it wishes. Conclusion After 1990, Turkey was in a deep socio-economic transformation, and GNAT was under an intense workload because of this transformation. Due to the pressure under the intense workload, Parliament began to search for solutions to overcome this workload. For this aim, the Turkish Grand National Assembly, on the one hand extended its working hours and on the other hand to speed up the legislative process, it created some tools such as bag law, basic law, bill in the appearance of the proposal. The use of these tools as workarounds could be considered appropriate for that period. But this was not the permanent solution; for this aim, the RP had to be thoroughly amended as to include a democratic and rational legislative process. However, these solutions, which had to be temporary, became institutionalized in the long run and further deepened the problem. Such tools need to be removed urgently for a permanent solution. It would have been another permanent solution to have strong, effective committees within the system and bring them to the point where they would share the workload of the General Assembly. The committees are a crucial part of the rational and rapid legislative process in democratic countries. When the committee stage is planned in a rational way and in a democratic manner, it can help to adopt high quality legislation that, at least in a short time, does not need to be amended. First of all the committee phase can be designed as a part of the whole legislative process that is complementary to the General Assembly phase, so that committees can share some of the heavy workload of the General Assembly. For this purpose, it is necessary to define a division of labor between committees, as well as between the General Assembly and the committees, which do not repeat each other and are complementary to one another in the RP. xxxiii Secondly the committees should be open to the participation of all MPs and the number of members of all political parties should be considered in the establishment of the committees. On the other hand, in order to benefit from the expertise of committee members, opposition party groups should be included in the management of the committees as well as the ruling party groups. If the committee membership of is open to all MPs and that if the members of opposition parties in the committee are involved in the committee management, these, on the one hand, will lead to more qualified laws and on the other hand to supervise the executive by the legislative in the committee. It was mentioned above that, at least commission presidency should be given to the opposition parties in order to ensure their participation to the commission management. It should be noted here that this is not the only way for the opposition to participate. There can be many examples of assuring the participation of the opposition parties in the committee. For example, there are opposition days in the British Parliament: some days in the legislative process have to be allotted as opposition days, and in these days, opposition parties, and especially the largest opposition party, have the opportunity to discuss their own chosen issues. There were 17 sessions for opposition parties from 1985 to 1989xxxiv (Griffith, Ryle, & Wheler-Booth, 1989, s. 341). Thirdly, the involvement of NGO 222 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey in the committees contributes to the production of more qualified laws by providing the transfer of their experience and expertise to the legislative process, as well as enhancing the democratic legitimacy of the legislature. Consequently these three issues relate to the creation of a more qualified and effective committee structure, and a legislative reform would be possible if the committees were strengthened in these respects. What needed to be done was, on one side, to strengthen the committees in these respects and on the other side, to remove the above-mentioned means to accelerate the legislative process. But the general trend was exactly to the contrary: On the one hand, the dominance of the ruling party in the committees was reinforced, while on the other the mechanisms that bypassed the legislative process were institutionalized. During the writing of this article, there have been two important developments concerning this study: 2017 Constitutional amendments and 2017 amendments of RP. With constitutional amendments, the parliamentary system was transformed into a Turkish type presidential system. The reason why the "Turkish type" qualification is used here is that it involves significant deviations from the presidential system. The most important of these deviations are: (1) There is a mutual dissolution authority between the legislative and executive bodies, which means that there is no organic separation of forces. (2) The President of the Republic can continue to be the leader of his party, which will further weaken the functional and organic separation of powers in the Parliament, where the disciplinary party structure exists. (3) Due to his authority to issue presidential decrees, the President will have legislative power, which weakens the functional separation of powers. According to article 16 of „The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen‟, which was declared after French Revolution in 26 August 1789, „Any society in which no provision is made for guaranteeing rights or for the separation of powers, has no Constitution.‟ Indeed today separation of the powers is an indispensable element of the rule of law. According to Montesquieu, …it has eternally been observed that any man who has power is led to abuse it; he continues until he finds limits. Who would think it! Even virtue has need of limits. / So that one cannot abuse power, power must check power by the arrangement of things.‟ (The Spirit of the Laws, 2005, s. 155) The separation of powers may take different forms in different forms of government. In presidential systems, powers are sharply separated from one another, that is, legislative, executive and judicial are functionally and organically different, whereas parliamentary systems have only a functional difference. In the parliamentary systems, executive, generally originates from legislative, therefore it can be said that there is a moderated separation of the powers. As a result of this organic involvement, the governments are responsible to parliament; it is assumed that the government has the confidence of the legislature during its administration (Tanilli, 1982, s. 382-384). This organic integrity between parliament and government is the main reason of some crisis in parliamentary systems. In 1920‟s Carl Schmitt was defining the crisis of parliamentary democracy as such: the real business takes place, not in the open sessions of a plenum, but in committees and not even necessarily in parliamentary committees, and that important decisions are taken in secret meetings of faction leaders or even in extraparliamentary committees so that responsibility is transferred and even abolished, and in this way the whole parliamentary system finally becomes only a poor façade concealing the dominance of parties and economic interests. (The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy, 1925, s. 20) Indeed in parliamentary systems, when the government is able to pass its bills without any amendment from legislature or when the government is able to amend its bill in the legislative assembly without taking into account dissenting opinion, that may mean legislature lose its power in favor of government and the government is the unique actor of legislation. Then separation of powers transforms into union of powers in respect of the relationship between executive and legislative and the real division becomes as the division between executivelegislative entity and judiciary (Karamustafaoğlu, 1965, s. 75-76). When executive has absolute majority in assembly, it may become dominant actor in the political system. When the government is integrated as a fortress, the system may become a one-party system (Tunaya, 1982, s. 353). If the rules that guarantees the separation of powers are not well established, than the system may go far away from democracy. In other words, „if there is no opposition, there is no democracy‟ (Tunaya, 1982, s. 346)xxxv. For this reason Teziç has pointed out that liberality of a regime does not depend on the division between legislative and executive, but it depends on the division between power and opposition. (2013, s. 472) In the presidential systems there is an organic and functional separation of powers. If, instead of separation of powers, there is an organic or functional union of the powers, the executive may dominate the legislative or there may be a gridlock of the system. In the presidential system introduced by the 2017 Constitutional amendments, due to absence of an organic and functional separation of powers, there is a possibility that the 223 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey executive can control the legislature. The 2017 amendments of RP reviewed above are in line with the tendency of the powerful executive. Mechanisms that emerged after 1990s, i.e. bag law, basic law, bill in appearance of proposal; dominance of ruling party in the committees; strengthened executive against legislative by 2017 Constitutional amendments and restriction of the rights of the opposition by 2017 amendments of RP may be assessed as the decisive steps taken in the same direction. However, it is also possible to make a different evaluation from a different point of view. During the negotiation of 2017 Constitutional amendment in the Constitutional Committee and in the General Assembly, it was often emphasized that what is intended by the amendment is to "build a powerful legislative". In a presidential system, the precondition of a powerful legislative is a rigid separation of powers. For such a rigid separation of powers, some powers given to the President of the Republic should be used at a very limited level and the legislature should be organized in such a way that it can enact the laws alone. For example President of the Republic should issue presidential decrees only on matters regarding executive power and the legislative should have a very strong committee system to legislate. Policy recommendations  Legislative reform should be focused on the committee stage.  Members of the opposition parties must manage especially supervision committees and they must have some responsibilities in performing committee activities.  All the MPs should have the opportunity to participate to the legislative activities: Committee membership, right to speech, right to propose amendments etc. Therefore each MP should have a right to be a member of parliamentary group or political party group.  An effective cooperation and collaboration should be set up between the committees and General Assembly, and among committees.  Legislative process should be arranged as an indivisible, whole entity. Each actor must have a different role in the whole process and these activities must complete each other; repetition should be definitely avoided.  Bag laws and government bills in the appearance of proposal must be strictly forbidden.  Basic laws should be regulated as a special category of laws.  Domination of ruling party should be prevented by the implementations and separation of the powers should be guaranteed by all of the political actors and powers. Reference Bakırcı, F. (1994). Başkanlık Sistemi, Parlamenter Sistem ve Meclis Hükümeti Sistemlerinin Karşılaştırıması ve Türkiye Örneği. Ankara: TBMM Uzmanlık Tezi. Bakırcı, F. (2000). TBMM'nin Çalışma Yöntemi. Ankara: İmge yayınevi. Bakırcı, F. (2008). TBMM Genel Kurulunun Birleşimi ve Gündemi Üzerine (Ergun Özbudun'a Armağan b., Cilt II). (Y. Serap, K. Gözler, & E. Göztepe, Dü) Ankara: Yetkin Yayınları. Bakırcı, F. (2011). TBMM'de Komisyonların Yapı ve İşleyişi: Sorunlar ve Çözüm Önerileri. İ. Neziroğlu, & F. Bakırcı içinde, Kanun Yapım Süreci Sempozyumu (s. 113-143). Ankara: TBMM Basımevi. Bakırcı, F. (2012). Yasama Erki ve Yasa Yapma Sanatı. Ankara Barosu Uluslararası Hukuk Kurultayı (s. 307326). Ankara: Ankara Barosu Yayınları. Bakırcı, F. (2013, January-April). Avusturya Parlamentosu Üzerine. GÜHFD, XVII(1-2), 1181-1242. Bakırcı, F. (2013). Kanun Yapım Tekniği ve Torba Kanun Uygulaması. Ankara: Ankara Barosu. Bakırcı, F. (2014). İspanya Parlamentosu'nun Yapı ve İşleyişi Üzerine. AÜHFD, 63(1), 1-79. Bakırcı, F., İba, & Şeref. (2017). Gerekçeli ve Notlu 1982 Anayasası. Ankara : Turhan Kitabevi. Beale, A. (1997). Essential Constitutional Law (2 b.). London, Sydney: Cavendish Publishing Limited. Boyunsuz, Ş. Ö. ( 2016, Eylül). Siyasi Parti Ssitemlerine Göre Başkanlık Rejiminin Türleri. Amme idaresi Dergisi, 49, 1-40. Bradshaw, K., & Pring, D. (1981). Parliament and Congress (2 b.). London: Quartet Books. Eren, E. K. (2002). Başkanlık Sisteminin Türk Parti Sistemi Açısından Türkiye‟de. Gazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 3, 135-161. Griffith, J. A., Ryle, M., & Wheler-Booth, M. A. (1989). Parliament: Functions, Practice and Procedures. London: Sweet&Maxwell. İba, Ş. (2006). 100 Soruda Anayasa ve Siyasal Kurumlar. Ankara: Turhan Kitabevi. İba, Ş. (2011). Ülkemizde Torba Kanun ve Temel Kanun Uygulamaları. Ankara Barosu Dergisi, 197-202. 224 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Irwin, H., Goetz, K. H., Karpen, U., Hénin, M. F., & Nabais, J. (2010). The Administrative Capacity of Turkish Grand National Assembly: SIGMA Peer Review Report . Ankara: OECD. Karamustafaoğlu, M. T. (1965). Yasama Meclisinde Komisyonlar. Ankara: A. Ü. Hukuk Fakültesi Yayınları. Köker, L. (2013). Yeni Anayasa Sürecini İzleme Raporu: Yeni Anayasada Temel İlkeler ve Hükümet Sistemi Tercihi. İstanbul: TESEV. Krutz, G. S. (2001). Tactical Maneuvering on Omnibus Bills in Congress. American Journal of Political Science, 45(1), 210-223. Linz, J. (1994). Presidential or Parliamentary Democracy: Does It Make a Difference? J.-V. A. Linz içinde, The Failure of Presidential Democracy; Comparative Perspectives (s. 3-87). London: John Hopkins University Press. Marsh, I. (1986). Policy Making in a Three Party System: Commitees, Colalitions and Parliament. London and New York: Methuen&Co. Montesquieu. (2005). The Spirit of the Laws (11th Edition b.). (A. M. Cohler, C. M. Basia, & H. S. Stone, Dü) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Neziroğlu, İ. (2008). Türk Parlamento Hukukunun Temel Kavramları. Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları. Özbudun, E. (2005). Başkanlık rejimi Tartışmaları. T. Ergül içinde, Başkanlık Rejimi (s. 104-112). Ankara: Barolar Birliği Yayınları. Raalte, E. V. (1959). The Parliament of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Hague: Government Printing and Publishing Office. Rutherford, G. W. (1914). Some Aspects of Parliamentary Obstruction. The Sewanee Review, 22(2), 166-180. Schmitt, C. (1925). The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy (6, 2000 b.). (E. Kenedy, Çev.) Cambridge: MIT Press. Shugart, M., & Carey, J. (1992). Presidents and Assemblies Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamic. USA: Cambridge Press. Silk, P. (1989). How Parliament Works (2 b.). New York: Longman Inc. Sinclair, B. (1997). Unorthodox Lawmaking: New Legislative Processess in the U.S. Congress. Washington D.C.: Congressional Quarterly. Tanilli, S. (1982). Devlet ve Demokrasi: Anayasa Hukukuna Giriş. İstanbul: Say Yayınları. Tanör, B., & Yüzbaşıoğlu, N. (2013). 1982 Anayasasına göre Türk Anayasa Hukuku (13 b.). İstanbul: Beta. Teziç, E. (1980). Türk Parlamento Hukukunun Kaynakları ve İlgili Anayasa Mahkemesi Kararları. İstanbul: Fakülteler Matbaası. Teziç, E. (2013). Anayasa Hukuku (16 b.). İstanbul: Beta Yayınları. Tunaya, T. Z. (1982). Siyasal Kurumlar ve Anayasa Hukuku. istanbul: Araştırma, Eğitim, Ekin Yayınları. UK Parliament. (2018, Nisan 10). How Parliament works. www.parliament.uk: https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/committees/ adresinden alındı Wheare, K. (1955). Government by Committee: An Essay on the British Constitution. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Yılmaz, B. (2018). The Presidential System in Turkey: Opportunities and Obstacles. Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. Author Information Fahri Bakirci Adres: Remzi Oğuz Arık Mahallesi, Şimşek sok. Nur Apartmanı, 35/16 Aşağı Ayrancı-ÇankayaAnkara / Turkey Mobile: 0505 777 56 66 Home: 0312 820 4223 Contact E-mail: bakircif@tobb.etu.edu.tr 225 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Derived from: (Bakırcı, TBMM'de Komisyonların Yapı ve İşleyişi: Sorunlar ve Çözüm Önerileri, 2011, s. 114-115) As Silk has pointed out, the term 'standing committee' is misleading because these committees do not have permanence. (1989, s. 129) iii After committee stage, the chairman of the committee reports to the General Assembly on the committee deliberations, but he/she does not give a written report. Although a procedure exists to give a written report about the committee negotiations, this method is not in use. Normally the bill return back to the General Assembly in the form in which it left committee and report stage allows all the MP, to speak on the amendments, and so to have opportunity for changes to be made. The amendments to be debated in the General Assembly are chosen by the Speaker and all the House members get one more chance to amend the text. (Silk, 1989, s. 128-136) iv While it is difficult to distinguish between the whole House and a committee of the whole House, there are some differences. The first is that Speaker‟s chair is empty in the House and the second difference is that the rules are more flexible than they are in the House (Bradshaw & Pring, 1981, s. 224-225). In this case, the House transforms into a committee of the whole House and then the committee and plenary stages actually become the same thing. Speaker does not transform into the chairmen of committee; the committee is presided by the Chairman Ways and Means. (Silk, 1989, p. 128) v In rationalised parliamentary systems, committees may share different burdens. In Netherlands, for instance, standing committees play an important role in maintaining a continuous relationship between the Chamber and the Government. (Raalte, 1959, s. 171) vi Below, this issue will be discussed in detail. vii These amendments were the most comprehensive changes made in 1973 RP until 2017. viii It should be kept in mind that these countries are only examples and that the number of these examples can be increased: For example in the Australian Parliament there is no such kind of division. (Bakırcı, 2013, s. 1222) ix This table is produced from: (Bakırcı, İspanya Parlamentosu'nun Yapı ve İşleyişi Üzerine, 2014, s. 41) x Members of GNAT have no right to submit amendments in the committees and therefore there is a big difference between MoP and committee members in terms of participation in legislative process. xi The committees in the British system generally are known as Standing Committees but since 15 November 2006 they have been given a new name: General Committees. Standing Committees on Bills are now called as Public Bill Committees. (UK Parliament, 2018) xii Each committee is called by a letter of the alphabet. xiii This figure derived from: (UK Parliament, 2018) xiv In fact, this solution was adopted in the RP Reconciliation Committee, which was set up in 2009 to amend wholly the RP of GNAT. However, the proposal prepared by this committee could not be discussed in the GNAT. xv The Bureau of the Assembly shall be composed of a Speaker; four vice-speakers; seven secretaries; and three quaestors. (RP, art. 9) xvi Derived from: (Bakırcı, 2014, s. 17-21) xvii Article 72- If there is no other provision in the Rules of Procedure, all political party groups and two deputies have right to speak on every subject on behalf of themselves. xviii Although it is not defined in the RP, these four persons, in practice, are called as bureau of the committee. xix I will use Table 1 to prove the need to work more and more. xx This table has produced from two sources. For GNAT the figures are taken from the unpublished archive of the Directory of Minutes in GNAT. For UK Parliament the figures are taken from: (UK Parliament, 2018). xxi This figure was taken from a book: (Silk, 1989, s. 121) xxii This figure most probably belongs to the years of 2010 and 2011 because there is no any other figure for the year of 2010. xxiii This year was the election year for the GNAT and it did not work in this year. xxiv In fact, there were package laws in the 1990s. But their subject was tax regulations. For the first time, package laws were introduced, which were related to the theme of fundamental rights and freedoms. xxv Similar regulations can be found in different countries; for example in the U.K. Parliament, irrelevant amendments to the subject matter or beyond the scope of the bill are eliminated by the Speaker in the General Assembly stage. (Griffith, Ryle, & Wheler-Booth, 1989, s. s. 232) xxvi For this reason, omnibus bill is legally defined in the RP of Congress. xxvii This solution, also, was adopted in the RP Reconciliation Committee, which mentioned above. xxviii For example, while the amount of time required to discuss a 10-article bill is around 40 hours, the time required for the basic law with the same article is around 10 hours. (Bakırcı, Kanun Yapım Tekniği ve Torba Kanun Uygulaması, 2013, p. 39.) xxix This table has been produced and summarized from another study. For the entire table look: Bakırcı, TBMM Genel Kurulunun Birleşimi ve Gündemi Üzerine, 2008, p. 420-421, Table 1. xxx I have called this method as “teklif görünümlü tasarı”(bill in appearance of proposal) by making an analogy to "Doğan görünümlü Şahin" (Şahin in the appearance of Doğan) in Turkish language. (Bakırcı, 2013). Doğan and Şahin are the names of two birds in Turkish language. Tofaş Car Company used these names as its car models. Doğan is a better, and therefore more expensive, car model in market. Therefore, in order to take advantage of the Doğan model, some people rectify their Şahin model by creating similarities between the two models. xxxi These amendments made to Constitution will enter into force in three different dates: (1) After adoption of Law No. 6771 in April 16, 2017 by referendum, (2) when the election process starts concerning simultaneous elections of the GNAT and President of the Republic (3) when the President of the Republic assumes office after the mentioned elections. Therefore, the impact of amendments will probably emerge after the 2019 elections. xxxii Yılmaz argues that (2018, s. 79-80) mutual dissolution has designed to overcome a possible system crisis, when the president and the majority of the legislature are of different political tendencies. He states that in general, the presidential system leads to government stability, but to ensure political stability, it needs instruments to sustain the system in case of possible crises and conflicts. As a result, He concluded that for the sustenance of the democratic system, it is necessary to resort to the power of mutual dissolution in, such as a political gridlock, instead of using the power for personal political interests. By these claims he ignores the rationale of presidential system because to ensure a presidential system, each branch should impose checks on the other without fear of jeopardizing its own existence (Shugart & Carey, 1992, s. 18-19). And the power of mutual dissolution, even in exceptional cases, causes the fear of jeopardizing its own existence. xxxiii Of course there are a plenty of mechanisms that make possible to have collaboration among legislative bodies and each country may have special kinds of them. For example in Netherlands any government bills goes to the Council of the State before submission to the Chamber for taking its advice (Raalte, 1959, s. 125). xxxiv Some examples of the opposition days are: Big City Hospitals, Cancer Screening for Woman at Risk, Caring for the Carers, Crime, Education, Housing Crisis and Urban Deprivation, Poverty amongst the Elderly, Regional Strategy, and Transport (Griffith, Ryle, & Wheler-Booth, 1989, s. 342). i ii 226 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey xxxv Quoted bu Tunaya, from Sir Ivor Jennings, Cabinet Government, p. 16. 227 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 228-238 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education Evaluate the Existing Political Oversight Role of Turkish Parliament over the Public Finance and in This Context Analyzed the New Turkish Presidential Government System Mustafa BICER Grand National Assembly of Turkey Abstract: Turkey changed its 1982 Constitution and adopted a presidential form of government in 2017. This constitutional amendment changed the approval of the budget radically. Along with that, debates may arise in terms of political responsibility for not approved the budget by the Parliament, how the budget will accepted when the president and majority of the Parliament are from different party, and there is not any mechanism being in classical presidential system as public account committee to enhance parliamentary supervision over the executive branch. In this study, - we deliberate the concept of political power in representative democracy in terms of public decision-making and resource allocation process and then we analyze the existing political oversight role of Turkish Parliament over the public finance on the basis of democratic legitimacy of public decision-making process and political accountability. - we focus on oversight role of Turkish Parliament over the public finance at the point of using "power of purse after the Constitutional Amendment adopted on April 16, 2017. Within the context of this analysis, the new constitutional structure of Parliament's budget approval and audit process in Turkish Parliament was evaluated. Keywords: Political representation, Principal-agent theory, Political accountability, Governmental systems, 2017 constitutional amendment Introduction "Magna Carta Libertatum" (1215) which is attempt to limit the financial power of absolute authority, is considered beginning of the parliament that is composed of representatives of the citizens. This historical and social development has been conceptualized in the political literary literature as “power of the purse". The "power of purse," which is the result of the gradual gains in the institutionalization of representative democracy over a period of nearly 800 years, has become an indispensable factor of representative democracy today. In the historical process the "power of purse," have enabled legislative body to get power over taxation and empower on prioritization of public expenditures. This legislative accepting the budget and monitoring budget outcomes have led to the development of budget as a means of political control over the executive. On the other hand, in 2017, Turkey changed its 1982 Constitution and adopted a presidential form of government. These changes will be implemented after the first scheduled presidential and assembly elections that will take place on the same day in 2019, unless early elections are called. This constitutional amendment changed the duties of the executive body; methods of elections; the regulations concerning the judiciary; the investigation and trial procedures for the president, ministers, and vice presidents; the president‟s power of executive order; and the approval of the budget. The new constitutional structure of the government system does not fundamentally make any significant amendment, except in the form of submission of budget proposals and changes in the member structure of the budget committee and provisional budget implementation. Along with that, debates may arise in terms of political responsibility for not approved the budget by the Parliament, how the budget will accepted when the president and majority of the Parliament are from different party, and there is not any mechanism being in - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey classical presidential system as public account committee to enhance parliamentary supervision over the executive branch. The above conceptual framework in this study, - we deliberate the concept of political power in representative democracy in terms of public decision-making and resource allocation process and then we analyze the existing political oversight role of Turkish Parliament over the public finance on the basis of democratic legitimacy of public decision-making process and political accountability. - we focus on oversight role of Turkish Parliament over the public finance at the point of using "power of purse after the Constitutional Amendment adopted on April 16, 2017. Within the context of this analysis, the new constitutional structure of Parliament's budget approval and audit process in Turkish Parliament was evaluated. Oversight of Public Resources in Representative Democracy As a representative body, parliaments emerged as the result of political and social developments in England after the XII century, and over time, they gained their present position in modern democracy. In the emergence of the first examples of parliaments, it was effective to prevent the King from imposing taxes on the basis of his sole discretion. In this context, parliament is entitled to levy taxes with the Magna Carta Libertatum of 1215 in the United Kingdom. Later, with the Bill of Rights, which was adopted in 1688, taxation was entirely among the powers of parliament. In the following stage, the aim of the parliament was to oversight the expenditure of taxes. Thus, the concept of "power of the purse" has emerged and authority to determine public expenditures and accordingly public services has been recognized as an authority belonging to the representative body/parliament in the representative democracy. Nowadays, the concept of collecting taxes and spending of these taxes by parliamentary decision constitutes the basic institutional structure of representative democracy. In the transition to a model of democracy based on political representation, the historical and sociological development towards the restriction and accountability of the political power/government that conceptualized as power of the purse has constituted an important cornerstone. In this process of transformation, with the elimination of absolute power, parliaments have begun to share their authority on public finance along with democratically elected executive bodies in representative democracies. Parliament entitled to the determination of public services; authorizing taxes and public expenditure have led to being developed the budget as the most important means of parliamentary oversight on the executive (Yılmaz and Biçer, 2010, p.202). The modern budgetary process is a product of this long and vexed development, involving governments as the key decisionmakers on most issues but also parliaments as keepers of the ultimate seal of approval. Powers of the Purse in Representative Democracy Representative democracy, a practice of democracy, has evolved as a system of institutions in context of political events arising from the transformations / revolutions in England, America and France. Today, the content of the theory of representative democracy, which transcends its geographical location and transformed into an universal value, reflects the historical experience of Western Europe. The focus of this historical experience is power of the purse, political representation and parliament (Biçer, 2017, p.9). The history of representation and its practice in political life dates back to the 1215 Magna Carta Libertatum. Magna Carta, which is an attempt to limit the fiscal authority of the absolute power, is accepted as the starting date of the parliament consist of the representatives of the people. The 1776 American Independent War and the constitutional arrangements prepared after the 1789 French Revolution structured the institutionalization of the power of the purse within the framework of the budget. In the 19th and 20th centuries, with the development and adoption of a set of budget principles, the power of the purse has become an indispensable element of the representative body. In Europe the power of the purse, institutionalized in line with the principles and philosophy of Magna Carta with being the first written document to limit the discretionary power of absolute governments, has developed in line with the limitation of the financial powers of the government in the sphere of taxation and spending. With the Magna Carta, the separation of powers in financial matters has been actually implemented as a result of the limitation of the king‟s sole authority on taxation (Hetzel, 1997, p.47.). After Magna Carta, other constitutional documents limiting the king's taxation power in England, 1628 Petition of Rights and 1689 Bill of Rights 229 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey (Çağan, 1980, p.131). These historical developments have ensured the institutionalization of the separation of powers, which means the fragmentation and limitation of government's absolute power (.Biçer, 2017, p.12). The theory of separation of powers was developed in order to protect freedoms against absolutist regimes, especially in the XVIII century. The main philosophy of the separation of powers is to divide state sovereignty into executive, legislative and judicial functions (Çağan, 1980, p. 133). After the US Constitution, the principle of separation of powers, which determines the constitutional and institutional boundaries of political power, has become a primary issue in terms of the functioning of representative democracy by gaining its present function and importance. The principle of the separation of powers, which is designed by the Constitution, has now become the most fundamental constitutional institution in representative liberal democracies. Today, representative democracy internalizing the principles of limited political power and popular sovereignty, is used in line with the concept of democratic state (Saybaşılı, 1992, p.8). Representative democracy, developing as capitalist democracy, is a political-economic system (Sartori, 1996). In this political-economic system, there are four main mechanisms that balance public financial management, increase effectiveness and improve efficiency. These are public borrowing mechanism, taxation system, functions of central bank and parliament. Within this balance system, parliaments have the status of the sole legitimate representative body, in which all decisions and practices of public borrowing, taxation and central banks are discussed, at least the design of which is discussed, and the implementation of these decisions are audited. For this reason, in the concept of classical sovereignty, parliament is considered as the basic and toplevel decision-making body of economic policy in representative democracy, since it has the authority to determine the legal framework and preconditions of the activities of the decision-making bodies of the macroeconomics policy (Santiso, 2005, p.4). In this classical conception, without the permission of parliament, the government not having the authority to collect revenue and spend public resources is an indicator of the parliament‟s absolute power in the field of public finance. In this sense, as the top decision-maker on public resources, the parliament decides on the financial movement area that the executive body will have and the way in which the necessary public resource will be provided. In other words, parliament decides on what amount and how resources will be transferred from the private economy through the budget (Biçer, 2017, p.147). Political Accountability In representative democracy, open, free and fair elections that constitute the essence of the democratic system offer the most appropriate political platform to maximize the interests of the groups in the society. The struggle of the interest groups mainly takes place in this institutionalized political platform. The political parties representing these interest groups compete for political power, and the purpose of this competition is to take power and to realize the public decisions and group interests in the maximum possible extent. The representative democratic system is a mechanism that regulates the content and rules of this competition (Şaylan, 1998, p. 88). In the economic sense, because of the fact that every decision taken by the political power has a social cost, the electoral competition in the representative democracy takes place mainly in the economic / financial field (Fabrizio and Ashoka, 2006, p. 7). In this sense, representative democracy requires a dynamic political struggle position with a clear conflict of interests in a properly functioning democratic process (Mouffe, 2008, p. 20). In representative democracy, another function of the elections is to provide voters hold politicians with being accountable for the policies they have implemented in the past. In representative democracy, elections have a major democratic function that enables governments to make political accountability and allow citizens to choose between alternative programs and politics. The most important problem in representative democracy is the balance between the broadest representation and financial accountability, and in this sense, democratic elections play a key role in establishing a balance between representation and accountability (Fabrizio and Ashoka, 2006, p.7). In representative democracies, the fact that the political power has the right to govern and is responsible against to the citizens, as a result of the political preference of the voters, that is, their consent, is considered as democratic accountability. Democratic accountability obliges those who take decisions relating to citizens by using state power to be accountable to those having consent. In this sense, consent and accountability constitute the two main axes of the democratic political system (Şaylan, 2008, p.192). Since democracy is a system of delegation, the establishment of political accountability is the most basic institutional existence for the 230 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey representative body / parliament. Today, political accountability, which conceptualizes as democratic accountability, is dealt with within the principal-agent theory (Harfst and Schnapp, 2003, p.3). In the representative democracy, the transfer of authority from the citizen to the politician takes place through elections, which are a basic democratic institution of representative democracy (Wolfgang, et al, 2003, p. 19). In this process, voters empower their representatives (politicians) to make public policy within the constitutional and legal boundaries. As a result of this empowerment, naturally, representatives must be accountable to the citizens as they use the authority that belongs to the citizens. This responsibility presents itself as political control in the form of a responsiveness and accountability relationship between the principals and agents (Şaylan; 2008, p.203). This political control function constitutes the focal point of political accountability (Erdoğan, 2010, p. 335). Political accountability is largely experienced in the budget approval and audit process. This budget process serves as an indispensable political control function in all democratic countries and provides a mechanism through which the accountability of the executive body is ensured. The allocation of resources to public policy and services undertaken by the state in representative democracy is determined not in the market process, but in a political process, that is, in the budget process (Musgrave and Musgrave, 1989, p.87). Therefore, the political struggle in the representative democracy focuses on the budget, which is the process of distributing the costs and the amount of resources to be allocated to public services undertaken by the state. Function and Importance of Budget Process in Representative Democracy With the present function and importance, budget system has followed a progress parallel to the development of Western democracies since the 18th century. The budget system has evolved in parallel to the formation of capitalist state in representative democracy and developed as a platform in which unequal power relations are seen as being excluded or involved in the process of different social groups from the decision-making process. Within this platform, the dynamics of the economic and political structure are decisive in order to determine and direct the volume of public expenditures through mutual interaction. That is, the volume and composition of public expenditures and the sharing of tax burden are determined not by market laws but by social and economic struggles between classes and groups. (O‟connor, 1973, p. 2) In representative democracy, Parliaments are differentiated in two main points in terms of budget approval and audit process. The first is the authority and capacity of legislative bodies to change the budget; the second is how the legislative bodies have structured their approval and audit process of the budget. This distinction is structured according to the government system of the countries and the situation and authority of the parliament is determined depending on whether the system of government is presidential or parliamentary system. Parliaments‟ authority on the budget in different government systems are formally contained in the constitution and laws, but this legal situation does not, in practice, demonstrate the actual capacity of parliaments to exercise their constitutional powers. As the highest decision-making authority in the distribution of public resources the parliament, in the framework of the authority laid down in the constitution, decides on the extent to which the executive branch will have the necessary financial resources and the way in which the necessary public resource is to be procured. In other words, the parliaments decide what amount and how much resources to be transferred from the private economy through the budget. However, in practice, despite this legitimate power, the parliaments in representative democracies transferred their actual use of power and authority to the government and bureaucracy because of the increase in state activities in the 20th century and due to the need for increased technical expertise (Santiso,2005, p. 4). In addition, due to political reasons such as the establishment of the government and political party structure in the parliamentary system of government and the veto power of the executive body in the presidential system of government, in terms of the determination of fiscal policy there is a difference between authorities of parliament defined in constitution and the actual authorities of the parliaments (InterParliamentary Union, 2004, p.45). This difference in practice directly affects the quality of the government and regime. Parliamentary oversight is the need for build confidence and legitimacy in the representative democracy. In addition, Parliamentary oversight is the need to enhance policy learning and policy innovation. Examining the implementation of established policies and learning from experience is important to improve the quality of future decisions. This makes oversight procedures essential elements in any form of representative democracy. 231 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey In general, the issue of political accountability is important in terms of fiscal policy and budget policy in particular. The formation of fiscal policy depending on the political decision-making process is one of the main factors that determine the failure of budget policies, especially in developing countries (Atiyas ve Sayın, 1997, p. 3). In this context, the well-functioning of the government system provides the success of the budget policies also. The setting of the budget is widely thought to be every democratic parliament‟s single most important power and responsibility. How this power is best understood and measured is subject to a lively debate. Important variables that tend to be highlighted include Parliament‟s capacity to influence both the overall envelope of the state budget and sectoral allocations; amending powers in relation to the budget bill; the extent, quality and accessibility of the information that accompanies the budget bill; the time and resources that committees and plenary have at their disposal in considering and debating the budget; and the discretion accorded to the executive in implementing the budget and, if considered necessary, deviate from the provisions of the budget law. There are different stages in the budgetary process: requests, central priority-setting, legislation, execution, auditing and scrutiny. The formal parliamentary involvement is normally concentrated to two of these stages, the legislative phase including examination of the budget proposal and the retrospective scrutiny of the public accounts. The first stage is to establish the budget. It is a forward-looking activity in which discussions on the priorities for the next budget will take place. Which policy areas shall have what amount of money? This work is in general carried out in Budget Committees or Finance Committees. The second stage is a retrospective activity during which parliaments exercise control over the implementation of the budget. Parliaments will check whether the last budget was spent wisely, for its intended purposes and in accordance with all regulations. This activity is normally carried out by budgetary control committees or public account committees with a different name but similar functions. Constitutional Structure of Parliamentary Oversight of Public Resources after the Last Constitutional Amendment in Turkey In Turkey, parliamentary government system was implemented from the proclamation of the Republic in 1923, until the Presidency and the Parliamentary Election in June 24, 2018. The parliamentary system of government has been transformed into a government system called “the Executive Presidency system”, where the all authority of the executive is concentrated in the elected President. After June 24, 2018, Turkey has passed into from the executive's power concentrated in the Council of Ministers deriving its legitimacy from parliament to a presidential government model deriving its legitimacy from the public directly. Hereafter, the Executive Presidency system is a government system where executive and legislative are elected separately by public vote. That is, the executive branch will take its democratic legitimacy from the nation itself, not from the legislature. With this constitutional amendment, members of the government as ministers appointed by the president doesn‟t require Parliament‟s approval and anymore ministers is not accountable to the Parliament. Under the Constitution of 1982, the legislative power is vested in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNAT). Article 7 regulates this constitutional rule as follows: Article 7 is specified as “Legislative power is vested in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNAT) on behalf of Turkish Nation. This power shall not be delegated.” In addition to that, amended article 8 of the Constitution specify using the executive power as follows, “Executive power and function shall be exercised and carried out by the President of the Republic and the Council of Ministers in conformity with the Constitution and laws.” It is understood that the legislative power will continue to be carried out by GNAT and all executive power previously hold by the prime minister and ministers is transferred to the president. Anymore the president and the ministries have no authority to draft a bill. The authority given to the president regarding the proposal of bill is to only submit the budget proposal to the GNAT. According to amended article 104 of the Constitution, the head of state/president may issue presidential decrees on matters of executive power. In the event of conflict between presidential decrees and existing laws, the latter would prevail. The president may issue by-laws to ensure the implementation of laws, providing that they are not contrary to these laws and regulations. Although the scope of this right is narrow and laws will continue to take precedence over decrees, this will give the president a limited legislative power. There was a special law making mechanism by enabling law to issue decrees having the force of law on certain subjects within the limits 232 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey prescribed in the Constitution in the previous government system as called decrees having the forces of law. The Assembly could authorize the Council of Ministers to issue decrees having the force of law. However, the GNAT required defining the purpose, scope, principles, and operative period of the decree having the force of law according to previous rules of the Constitution. Another important amendment is about constitutional structure of legislative budget process. Naturally, the constitutional structure of legislative budget process were adjusted according to the presidential system. In this new legislative budget system, the president will prepare a proposal for the budget and submit it to Parliament and this budget proposal is discussed and approved only by Parliament. Now, first, it will be briefly explained previous constitutional structure of legislative budget process, and then this budget process will be evaluated in the executive presidency system. Previous Legislative Budget Process As are in countries with a democratic system based on representation, democratic scrutiny/oversight of public finances in Turkey are carried out by Parliament/GNAT in the framework drawn in the Constitution. Until the transition to the Executive Presidency system, GNTA carried out this oversight in two ways, namely, oral and written questions to government, parliamentary inquiry, general debate, introducing motions of censure, calling for votes of non-confidence and parliamentary investigations, as well as the budget approval and audit process. In the Executive Presidency system, GNTA lost some oversight functions such as motions of censure, calling for votes of non-confidence and oral questions to government which are peculiar to parliamentary government system. Anymore, GNAT will exercise its powers of acquiring information and oversight functions by means of parliamentary inquiry, general debate, parliamentary investigations and written questions with the budget approval and audit process. In general term, Parliament‟s powers over the budget are principally set down in the Constitution and in the Public Financial Management and Control Law in Turkey. The institutional structure of the legislative approval and audit of the budget is composed GNAT and the Turkish Court of Accounts (TCA),. The organizational structure in the GNAT, the Plan and the Budget Committee, where the budget and final account draft laws were first discussed and audited, and the General Assembly of the GNAT, where these draft laws were finally discussed and enacted. The second pillar of the institutional structure is the Court of Accounts, which carries out the indirect audit on behalf of the GNAT and reports the results of this audit to the Parliament according to relating articles of the Constitution, the Public Financial Management and Control Law of 5018, Law No. 6085 On Turkish Court Of Accounts. Parliamentary oversight of public expenditures is carried out by the TCA, which presents its audit (Statement of Conformity) to the parliament following the end of the fiscal year. Previous constitutional structure of legislative budget process was defined by between 161 and 164 articles of the Constitution. These four articles (161,162,163 and 164) dealt in general with the broadest principles of public management and control system: specify the deadlines for presenting the draft budget bill and final accounts to parliament, and regulate parliamentary debates on the budget. In this constitutional framework, there was one permanent parliamentary committee on plan, budget and final account: The Plan and Budget Committee in GNAT. According to amended article 162 of the Constitution the legislative stage of the budget process could be divided into two steps: the Plan and Budget Committee and plenary session of GNAT (CRT, 2018). In this constitutional framework, legislative budget process was regulated as follows: - According to Article 162 of the Constitution stated that the executive would submit the central government budget draft law (budget bill) to the Turkish Grand National Assembly (the Parliament) 75 days prior to the beginning of the fiscal year. - The Plan and Budget Committee of the Parliament first considered the draft budget. The Committee had to adopt the budget bill as amended within 55 days, which subsequently was considered by the Parliament in plenary session within 20 days. In other words, 55 days out of 75, which were allocated to the budgetary debates in Parliament, was reserved only for the Plan and Budget Committee. In the Committee stage, there were not any limitations in the Constitution or in the laws as to be proposed amendments by the Members of the Committee for increasing revenues or decreasing revenues; increasing expenditures or decreasing expenditures or making transfers among appropriations. For this reason, depth and more technical debate could take place in this Committee stage, although the stage of plenary session was more political and ceremonial. Members of 233 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Parliament only could express their opinions on public bodies and over all policies of government during this debates. - The budget bill was then approved by the Parliament and promulgated by the President of the Republic and became effective as of 1st of January. The Plan and Budget Committee is one of the Parliamentary committees. It comprised 40 members, of who 25 represent the governing party or parties and 15 the oppositions. On the other hand, if there was even a minority government in power, 25 members of the Plan and Budget Committee were from the ruling party. With this regulation, the government has been granted a privilege for the Council of Ministers to negotiate and approve the budget, which has gained the character of a vote of confidence. Thus, in the Constitution, plans and budgets to be finalized by a specialized committee in which the government had a majority, and the budgetary balances adopted here were to prevent the breakdown in the Plenary Session. Therefore, according to the constitution, members of the GNAT were not able to raise expenses or reduce incomes during the discussion of the draft budget in the Plenary Session. The Plan and Budget Committee would serve as the main platform on scrutinize proposed government budget prior to parliamentary approval. Departmental committees formally did not participate in the budget negotiations. That is to say, there was not a rule to formulate the involvement of the departmental committees to the legislative budget process either the Parliament‟s rules of procedure or laws. When we look at the effectiveness of the budget at the committee stage in the previous system, it is seen that the Committee is not effective in determining the budget appropriations. In theory, members of the Plan and Budget Committee were allowed to make changes over the composition of budget appropriations without any legal limitation according to the Constitution. However, because of the party‟s disciplined, in realty, such power was considerably weaker. Due to the fact that members of the governing parties had the majority in the Plan and Budget Committee, the discussions and supervision of the committee was weakened in terms of parliamentary supervision. From the perspective of the representative theory of democracy, the acceptance or rejection of the budget draft law has a political issue in the sense of a vote of confidence or non-confidence. In the parliamentary government system, the government's approval of the budget due to the majority of the Parliament, the government's vote of confidence, disapproval or refusal is a vote of non-confidence. Constitution structure of final accounts was defined in the amended article 164. According to the amended article 164 of the Constitution final accounts bill would be submitted to the Parliament by the Council of Ministers within seven months of the end of the relevant fiscal year, unless law prescribed a shorter period. The final accounts bill was considered by Parliament together with the central government budget bill. Both the previous year‟s accounts and the following year‟s appropriations were approved by Parliament at the same time. Under the actual Constitution and the Law on the Turkish Court of Accounts (TCA), the TCA audits on behalf of the GNAT the revenues, expenditure and properties of public administrations. In this auditing, reliability and accuracy are to be examined, as well as economy, efficiency and effectiveness. The main document submitted by the TCA to Parliament is the annual Statement of General Conformity. This document is complemented by various other reports as provided for in the Law on the TCA and the Public Financial Management and Control Law. Increasingly, this also includes „performance audit reports‟, which examine the performance of different parts of public administration in terms of their efficiency, effectiveness and economy. The task of discussing the reports and approving the Consolidated Final Accounts falls to the Plan and Budget Committee. There is not a special committee on approving final accounts in the present legislative budget process. In sum, normatively, the GNAT seems to have a wide range of means to scrutinize the government in the process of budget preparation, approval, execution and audit in the previous constitutional legislative budget structure. However, the broad formal powers given to the Parliament on the budget is not enough to understand quality and effectiveness of parliamentary scrutiny over public financial management system. Considering the effectiveness of parliamentary oversight until 24 June 2018; Parliamentary / democratic oversight of public finances was ineffective due to the constraints caused by the parliamentary government system and the lack of administrative capacity in the GNAT. This has raised the issue of a continuous critiques on the audit capacity of the legislature, ex ante (approval phase) and ex post (after execution) of the budget oversight. Along with that, it also points to the problem of an effective check and balance between legislative and executive. In this context, there are many scientific articles, symposiums and research studies published in the past years. Some of those are (OECD/SIGMA, 2010), (TBMM, 2008) and (Yıldıran, at all, 2010). 234 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Legislative Budget Process in the New Executive Presidency System With the Law No. 6771 Amending the Constitution, the provision of “Preparation and Implementation of the Budget”, “Debate on the Budget”, “Principles Governing Budgetary Amendments” and “Final Account” regulated by Articles 161, 162, 163 and 164 of the Constitution are collected and amended in Article 161 under the “Budget and Final Account” heading. The process of new constitutional approval of the budget and audit of final account in amended article 161 is summarized below: a) The budget draft law was proposed by the President as a budget proposal instead of being submitted to the GNAT by the Council of Ministers: This amendment is mainly based on the transition from the parliamentary government model to the presidential government system. Because, in the classical presidential model where the entire authority of the executive power is convened by the president elected by the public, the preparation and approval of the budget is the most basic duty of the representative body. For example, in the United States, where the classical presidential system has been practiced in the best way, Congress, the representative body, has the capacity to refuse, amend or re-prepare its own budget proposal submitted by the executive body. (InterParliamentary Union, 2004, p.44.) b) The regulation determining the number of members of the Plan and Budget Committee, which is the committee where budget and final account is discussed, has been removed from the Constitution: The sentence determined Plan and Budget Committee consists of 40 members and that at least 25 members belong to the ruling party, has been removed from the Constitution. In the new constitutional government system, in accordance with the traditional presidential system, since the government was not established on the basis of the majority / confidence of the parliament, this numerical exception to ensure the majority of the ruling party / parties was removed from the Constitution. With this Amendment, the distribution of the members of the Plan and Budget Committee to be determined according to the number of members in the GNAT in accordance with the provisions of the Rules of Procedures stipulating the distribution of members of the other committees in the GNAT. c) If the budget “cannot be put in force in time”, a provisional budget is adopted, and if this is not possible, then the budget of the previous year is applied, subject to a re-evaluation rate. In order to ensure continuity of the state action, in the event that the budget law is not put into effect at the legal time, GNAT is to issue a provisional budget law. If the GNAT fail to issue the provisional budget law, the President has the right to put into force a provisional budget decree (presidential decree) that determined based on a certain ratio of previous year‟s initial budget appropriations. This regulation is similar to the enforcement procedure of the provisional budget law in Article 19 of the Law on Public Financial Management and Control No. 5018. However, the main difference from the regulation in Article 19 is that if the GNAT does not accept the provisional budget law, the budget of the previous year will be increased by the re-evaluation rate and will be implemented automatically by President. This amendment is silent on what happens if the budget proposal is rejected in the Plenary Session of the Parliament. In that case, President might have two way to solve this conflict. First one is that the president could enact a provisional budget decree based on a certain ratio of the re-evaluated budget of the previous year, thus bypassing parliament. Secondly the president might reach an agreement with Parliament to enact budget proposal. Because it might essentially increases the budget from the previous year per rate of revaluation, but this might make the executive activities of the president more difficult. d) Provision for special time and procedures for development plans was removed from amended article 161. e) The provisions regarding the reading and voting of public administration budgets on section basis was abolished. According to the Law No. 5018, the Parliament deliberates the text of budget draft Law on article basis and the revenue and expenditure schedules on public administration basis, and puts the draft law to a vote on section basis. f) In the Constitution, the provision for the final account to be submitted to the GNAT within 7 months is changed to 6 months. In fact, since 2006, when the Law No. 5018 came into force, the period of submission to the GNAT has been implemented at the end of the sixth month. (According to article 42 of the Law No. 5018) Practically, Final accounts bill were submitted to the Parliament by the Council of Ministers in the previous system. 235 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey When the constitutional amendment outlined above regarding the legislative budget process is examined: - It can be argued that there is no significant change in the constitutional structure of the legislative budget, except for the regulations relating to submission of draft budget law to parliament with the distribution of members in the budget committee being required by the presidential government system and also the enactment of the provisional budget affair. - However, in parallel with the transformation of the constitutional structure of government system, a major change has occurred in the process of preparation, discussion and approval of the budget. - Namely, the budget process, which was open to the influence and direction of the government onetime, which was formed by the ruling party or parties having a majority in Parliament, has left to the parliament directly. That is, GNAT has the monopoly over granting expenditure to the president through the Budget Law and has effective control over the executive body according to the letter of the amended Constitution. That is to mean that, GNAT has had the monopoly over granting expenditure to the president through the budget law and has owned effective oversight over the executive body in this new government system. Conclusion and Recommendations In terms of the effectiveness of the parliamentary process of the budget, other legal and methodological procedures other than the Constitutional amendments are important in the Executive Presidency System. These recommendations are summarized below: - Establishment of a Separate Public Accounts Committee: Parliamentary oversight of the executive branch is a critical part of the government‟s system of checks and balances. Legislative bodies conduct much of its oversight through committees, with the support of a number of official and offices that investigate, audit, and provide information and analysis on executive branch activities. In the Western democracies, the main emphasis is on establishing an effective and functional check and balance system based on the separation of powers, irrespective of the form of government system. In the effective and functional check and balance system, public account committees undertake a complementary function in the Western democracies. In the context of financial oversight the public accounts committees as is known in the Westminster form of governance is often viewed as the most powerful of all Committees in relation to ex- post scrutiny of public expenditure. Public accounts committees, which are common in the Commonwealth countries, have been established in many countries, especially in Central European countries, after 1990's (TBMM, 2008). - Participation of Other Sectoral Committees in the Legislative Budget Process: the sectoral expertise of the committees is, up to now, effectively excluded during the parliamentary budgetary process. Making regulations to increase the role of other sectoral committees in the legislative budget process will enable the GNAT to take an active role in the oversight of the budget policies and budget realization results/final accounts. Thus, it will contribute to the establishment of the check and balance mechanism in the political system effectively. - Establishment of an Independent Research/Budget Analysis Unit in the Parliament: In recent years, to enhance legislative oversight, many parliament have established specialized research services or budget analysis units serving all members of parliament. These budget units in parliament, some in the form of full-blown legislative budget offices, are becoming increasingly common in democratic parliaments. They can aid the legislative, oversight and scrutiny, and, of course, the budgetary functions of parliament. - Participatory Legislative Budget Process: Structured dialogue and exchange with representatives of interest groups, organised civil society, and experts is a hallmark of modern parliaments and an indispensable part of parliamentary budget process. The key challenge that parliaments and individual parliamentarians face in their exchanges with representatives from a very wide range of organisations and interests is to ensure that open channels of communication such as written statements, presentations, joint seminars and hearings. Democratic societies were not born out of an abstract idea. They were based on the down-to-earth insistence that those who pay the taxes shall have control over how the taxes are used. It therefore follows that democracy as well is about the possibilities that citizens/legislative bodies have of making holders of public office accountable for their decisions and actions. This were conceptualized as the power of purse /budgetary powers which have been conducted by parliament in the representative democracy. For this core fact, Parliaments provide financial authority and powers. They therefore have the right and responsibility to hold governments and its entities 236 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey accountable for the management and use of the resources entrusted to them. That‟s why, accountability is one of the most fundamental democratic principles. In sum, today democracy is a question of confidence, not only to people, but also to institutions. The more confidence citizens have to institutions using public money, the more there is democratic legitimacy. Democratic legitimacy is, however, not only a question of creating democratic institutions. The life of democratic institutions and their way of working must constantly be maintained and developed. The Executive Presidency System provides new opportunities for the development of democratic institutions through the strengthening of democratic legitimacy for Turkey. The last word is that effective parliamentary participation and oversight in the budget and final account process will contribute to the establishment of confidence and legitimacy in the eyes of citizens, thus, it will contribute to strengthening the sense of common interest and, consequently, to a more comprehensive public interest in the Executive Presidency System. References Atiyas, İ. ve Sayın Ş.,(1997), Siyasi Sorumluluk, Yönetsel Sorumluluk ve Bütçe Sistemi: Bir Yeniden Yapılanma Önerisine Doğru, İstanbul: TESEV Yayını, Boyut Matbaacılık. Biçer, M., (2017), Türkiye‟de Kurala Bağlı Maliye Politikası ve Bütçe Hakkı Temelinde Parlamentonun Etkinliği, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi. CRT, (2018) Constitution of the Republic of Turkey, https://global.tbmm.gov.tr/docs/constitution_en.pdf. Çağan, N., (1986), Anayasa Çerçevesinde Kamu Maliyesinin Parlamenter Kontrolü, Anayasa Yargısı, Cilt 2, Anayasa Mahkemesi Yayını, Ankara, pp. 199-224. Erdoğan M., (2010) Anayasal Demokrasi, 8. Baskı, Siyasal Kitabevi. Fabrizio S. and Ashoka M., (2006), Can Budget Institutions Counteract Political Indiscipline? International Monetary Fund WP/06/123, 2006. Harfst, P. and Schnapp, K., (2003) Are Agents Able to Control their Principal‟s Control Structures? An Empirical Attempt to Measure the Institutional Potential of Parliaments to Control their Executives”, ECPR Joint Sessions of Workshops, Workshop 5: Institutional Theory: Issues of Measurement and Change, Edinburgh, March 28 – April 2, http://www.unilueneburg.de/fb2/soz/politik/seiten/team/dokumente/ECPR_ Edinburgh.pdf, (15.05.2010) Hetzel, R., L., (1997) The Case for a Monetary Rule in a Constitutional Democracy, FRB Richmond Economic Quarterly, Vol. 83, No. 2, Spring, pp. 45-66. Inter-Parliamentary Union, Parliament,(2004) The Budget and Gender Process: Handbook for Parliamentarians, No. 6. Available at: http://www.ipu.org/PDF/publications/budget_en.pdf (30.03.2017). Mouffe C., (2008) Siyasetin Dönüşü, Çev. Fahri Bakırcı ve Ali Çolak, Epos Yayınları. Musgrave A. R. and Musgrave P. B., (1989) Public Finance in Theory and Practice, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company. O‟connor J.,(1973) The Fiscal Crisis of the State, St. Martin Press, New York. OECD/SIGMA (2010), The Administrative Capacity of The Turkish Grand National Assembly, SIGMA Peer Review Report, OECD- SIGMA. Santiso, C., (2005) “Parliaments and Budgeting: Understanding the politics of the budget”, presented at the XVII Regional Seminar on Fiscal Policy of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLAC) in Santiago, Chile, on 24-27 January 2005 and at the Third Annual Meeting EuroLatino-American Governance for Development Network of the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) in Hamburg, Germany, on 12-13 December 2005. Sartori, G., (1996) Demokrasi Teorisine Geri Dönüş, Çev. Tuncer Karamustafaoğlu ve. Mehmet Turan, Yetkin Yayınevi. Saybaşılı, K., (1992), İktisat, Siyaset, Devlet ve Türkiye, Bağlam Yayınevi. Strøm, K., Wolfgang C. M., and Bergman, T., (eds.), (2003) Delegation And Accountability in Parliamentary Democracies Delegation and Accountability in Parliamentary Democracies, Oxford University Press. Şaylan G., (1998) Demokrasi ve Demokrasi Düşüncesinin Gelişmesi, TODAİE İnsan Hakları Araştırma ve Derleme Merkezi, Ankara. Şaylan G., (2008) Temsili Liberal Demokrasinin Önlenemez Krizi, 1. Baskı, İmge Kitapevi, Ankara. TBMM (2008) Bütçe Sürecinde Parlamentonun Değişen Rolü, Uluslararası Sempozyum, Bildiri ve Makaleler, Afyonkarahisar 8 – 9 Ekim 2008. Wolfgang, M., C., Bergman T., and Strøm, K., (2003) Parliamentary Democracy: Promise and Problems‟. In Strøm vd., (ed.) Delegation And Accountability in Parliamentary Democracies Delegation and Accountability in Parliamentary Democracies, Oxford University Press, (pp. 3-32). 237 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Yıldıran Mustafa, Mahmure Eşgünoğlu and Süleyman Bolat (Ed) (2010), Maliye Politikasının Oluşturulmasında Parlamentonun Rolü, Uluslararası Sempozyum Bildiri ve Makaleler, 21–22 Ekim 2010, Sivas. Yılmaz, H. H. and Biçer, M., Parlamentonun Bütçe Hakkını Etkin Kullanımının Yeni Bütçe Sistemi Çerçevesinde Değerlendirilmesi, 2010, Maliye Dergisi, Ocak-Haziran 2010, Sayı 158, pp. 201-225. Author Information Mustafa Bicer Legislative Experts Laws and Resolution Department, Grand National Assembly of Turkey Bakanlıklar/Ankara/Turkey Tel: +90 (312) 420 5359 Contact E-mail: mustafabicer69@yahoo.com.tr 238 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS) ISSN: 2587-1730 The Eurasia Proceedings of Educational & Social Sciences (EPESS), 2018 Volume 11, Pages 239-246 ICONSE 2018: International Conference on Science and Education The Scenario of Emotional Intelligence, Self-Esteem and Organizational Commitment Siti Sarawati JOHAR University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Abstract: Emotional intelligence is now gaining ground in various psychological studies. The emphasis given to the competencies in emotional intelligence suggests that these elements also contribute to human emotional change and influenced the formulations of human behavioral. In this study, the issues in the workplace are referring to emotional intelligence, self-esteem and commitment of employees. The specific purpose of this study was to test the impact of emotional intelligence among employees whether it able or unable to influence a commitment to the organization through employee self-esteem factor. A total of 196 civil servants in the Local Authority (PBT) have been selected as respondents. Measurement tools that are used in the data lump is Emotional Intelligence Self-Description Inventory (EISDI), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) and the Employee Commitment Survey Revised Version (ECS). The data was then analyzed using hierarchical regression analysis. The findings show that emotional intelligence and four dimensions of emotional intelligence have a direct impact on organizational commitment. In fact, the emotional intelligence and dimensions also has an indirect effect on organizational commitment when self-esteem as mediator factor is controlled. Employee self-esteem later found to function as a partly mediator that affecting the relationship between overall emotional intelligence and four dimensions of emotional intelligence with organizational commitment. The most important findings are found emotional intelligence dimension among employees are able to become more relevant with the increasing availability of commitment of employee when there was the element of self-esteem as a mediator factor. Keywords: Emotional intelligence, Self-esteem, Organizational commitment, Mediator Introduction The public sector is one dimension in a very significant factor entity will support the development of a country. It was including the management and administrative machinery which is one of the mediums of human capital that allow human to bring the country to the development in the world with full of value and meaningful. The public sector is also as a human capital component that to be the major improvements in economy. It is to remain as the country largest provide the services that include services by statutory and non-statutory bodies, local authorities (PBT), district offices and state government agencies as well as various categories of posts in each ministry. Accordingly, this study focuses specifically on organizational psychology scenario of civil servants as employees, by testing the effects of emotional intelligence on the commitment of employees in the public sector. However, there are likely mediator factor that also influence the emotional intelligence of employees in an impact on employee commitment in the workplace through the role of self-esteem factor among them. This research focused on civil servants working in local authorities in Malaysia. Employees in local authorities is also a human capital within the organization, even more so because of their frequency in the community and interact with services provided are directly and indirectly. Despite various policies, systems and transformative introduced and implemented from time to time for all public servants in achieving quality of work, but there is still a vacuum here and there until tarnish the image of the public sector. The public sector is found often face pressure from society to function more proactively improve performance and service delivery systems, including the role of local authorities (Ibrahim and Abdul Karim, 2004). According to Datuk Seri Abu Bakar Abdullah said in a statement on 21 November 2010 at the Putrajaya International Convention Centre, which - This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. - Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of the Conference © 2018 Published by ISRES Publishing: www.isres.org International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey states that by 6133 the government employees have reported problems in the discipline and poor performance in 2009, which in turn has increased by 789 cases compared with 2008 (Daily News, 2010). The increase makes people wonder how far public servants can change the bias (Zulnaidi, 2008) and transformed with a strength that could improve the image of the organization. Quite evident in the pursuit of greater excellence in the public sector, is necessarily have transformation for each implementation has been made towards the application of the reforms will be based on the primary focus as a key strategic target. Behavior of public officials, including the local authorities, which became the front line of human resource administration, is necessary to always close and important role to society, because they become the symbol of the quality of government services. Emphasis should be given to the behavioral, emotional and organizational commitment in responding to the environment because it is a necessity in any organization. Surely that using human resources efficiently and effectively is to improve organizational productivity and vice versa (Rozman, 2007). However, the efficiency and effectiveness of human resources towards improving the organization's commitment will not be achieved if human resources working with forced, exist the problem of interaction and communication, low motivation, low self-esteem, low emotional intelligence, as well of behavior limping or organizations that can put them in the form of work that is not desirable and not be their expertise. This situation may be causing employees to work with the rebellious feelings, often protesting, not satisfied and often allow themselves to be on high pressure stage while low performance stage (Brief and Weiss, 2002). This differed with the employees who are interested in working because they perceive themselves as partly rather than the job and animating in any task with fully implemented with a true heart and sincere (Groves and Vance, 2009). This situation has indirect linking with elements of emotional intelligence, self-esteem and employee commitment. Emotional intelligence is a main element in this study. Emotions have their own place and value in the areas of leadership and organization (Sharifah Akmam and Ahmad Shukri, 2006). Emotions also are factors in the success of the organization for an employee in the process of decision-making; ensure customer loyalty, transparency and open communication, teamwork, strategic renewal, creativity and more innovative changes (Groves and Vance, 2009). Human emotions can certainly be traced through assumptions based on facial expression, behavior, and physical movement. Negative emotions such as anger and fear can have a negative impact on an individual's focus on work. Ashkanasy et al. (2002) then compare the effects of positive and negative emotions, and they give attention to the positive aspects of mood associated with a strong commitment to work and better work performance. Afzaal and Taha (2013) also stressed the importance of finding new channels in human resource management policies more effectively and therefore requires a close relationship with a new dimension of organizational affective such as emotional intelligence among employees. In summary, the focus on researchers doing in this study is to investigate the effect and influence of four dimension of emotional intelligence on organizational commitment of employees in a local authority based on public sector context scenario in Malaysia. Researchers are also trying to see whether the effect of emotional intelligence was influenced by employee self-esteem as a mediator impact factor. Thus on the basis of several existing well-established theory, this study was undertaken to observe the phenomenon of the public sector in this country that are appropriate to the current situation, albeit instruments and theories used is from the west, but the results of this study may be able to confirm that it can be adapted in this country consistent with the scenario of local people and local organizations. Therefore, the study was conducted as a test the effects of these three variables in the organization. Research Questions Research question 1: Does the effect of self-esteem mediate the relationship of perception and appraisal of emotions with organizational commitment in public sector? Research question 2: Does the effect of self-esteem mediate the relationship of facilitating thinking of emotions with organizational commitment in public sector? Research question 3: Does the effect of self-esteem mediate the relationship of understanding emotion with organizational commitment in public sector? Research question 4: Does the effect of self-esteem mediate the relationship of regulation and management of emotion with organizational commitment in public sector? 240 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Research Hypothesis H1: There is effect of self-esteem as mediator in the relationship between perception and appraisal of emotions with organizational commitment in public sector. H2: There is effect of self-esteem as mediator in the relationship facilitating thinking of emotions with organizational commitment in public sector. H3: There is effect of self-esteem as mediator in the relationship between understanding emotion with organizational commitment in public sector. H4: There is effect of self-esteem as mediator in the relationship between regulation and management of emotion with organizational commitment in public sector. Research Conceptual Framework EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE  perception and appraisal of emotions  facilitating thinking of emotions  understanding emotion  regulation and management of emotion SELFESTEEM ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT Figure 1. The conceptual framework of study Methodology Research Design This study is a type of non-experimental study and it is also a form of field studies with the use of descriptive statistics and regression. Field studies are quite relevant for use in this study due to its high reliability, while consumption was relatively low cost (Maimunah, 1992). Requirements of this study is too descriptive and hypothesis testing. Hypothesis testing also had approach to the interpretation of the independent variables in two or more factors in certain conditions (McIntyre, 2005). In this study, regression testing is describing the effect or impact of the relationship between variables. Research Location Site of this research selected as the study location are two body agencies Local Authority (LA) of the city council in the southern peninsular of Malaysia. In researcher knowledge, such a study has yet to be carried out by any party bound at the locations that have mentioned. The study focused on the state of the city council and this also means that the city hall, local municipalities and local district councils are not included as a LA sample in this study. Subjects Sample of this study is focused only on employee category with a total of 403 employees and shows the proposed sample size was 196 people according to Schedule of Size Sample Determination (Krejcie and Morgan, 1970). This study respondents from two city council in Malaysia where the category of employees is from group grade 22 until grade 44. This category selection taken from several units and departments in both the city council. Possibility for sampling error is 5% for the sample size formula by Krejcie and Morgan (1970) was developed using 95% confidence interval is 0.05. Systematic random sampling method used in the process of selecting a sample for this study. 241 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Research Instruments Questionnaire of Emotional Intelligence Self-Description Inventory (EISDI; Groves et al., 2006) is used in this study to measure emotional intelligence of employees in public sector. Instrument reliability is .915. While questionnaire of Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965) is to measure the self-esteem of employees and reliability of the instrument used in this study was .794. To test the commitment to organization of employees, the survey Employee Commitment Survey Revised Version (ECS; Meyer et al., 1993) was used and the reliability of the instrument in this study was .817. Reliability three surveys have a relatively high value of reliability and can be trusted to use good quality research results. Research Result Hypothesis 1: There is effect of self-esteem as mediator in the relationship between perception and appraisal of emotions with organizational commitment in public sector. Table 1. Regression analysis of self-esteem effects as a mediator factor in relation between perception and appraisal of emotions with organizational commitment Test Step R R2 ∆R2 β Sig. .407 .165 Analysis one .000 .407* X= PAE .000 Y= Org. Commitment .400 .160 Analysis two .000 X= PAE .000 .400* Y= Self-Esteem .326 .106 Analysis three .000 .326* X= Self-Esteem .000 Y= Org, Commitment Analysis four .326 .106 .195* Block 1 : Self-Esteem .013 .444 .197 .091 .329* Block 2 : PAE .000 Note: *significant level p< .05, PAE: Perception and Appraisal of Emotions The findings (Table 1.0) shows the overall perception and appraisal of emotions have an effect on organizational commitment (β= .407, p< .05) in the analysis one. Perception and appraisal of emotions is also found to significantly influence on self-esteem of employees (β= 0.400, p< .05) in the analysis two. Next in the analysis three, mediator variable (self-esteem) were found to significantly influence organizational commitment (β= .326, p< .05). Lastly, in the last step of the analysis of four, the result of the analysis shows that the effect of perception and appraisal of emotions on organizational commitment was significant (β= .195, p< .05), having self-esteem as mediator controlled on organizational commitment (β= .329, p< .05). Partly mediator was happening in this analysis when the results are significant with p< .05 in the final analysis. Therefore, the research hypothesis is accepted. Hypothesis 2: There is effect of self-esteem as mediator in the relationship between facilitating thinking of emotions with organizational commitment in public sector. The findings (Table 2.0) shows the overall facilitating thinking of emotions have an effect on organizational commitment (β= .490, p< .05) in the analysis one. Facilitating thinking of emotions is also found to significantly influence on self-esteem of employees (β= 0.379, p< .05) in the analysis two. Next in the analysis three, mediator variable (self-esteem) were found to significantly influence organizational commitment (β= .326, p< .05). Lastly, in the last step of the analysis of four, the result of the analysis shows that the effect of facilitating thinking of emotions on organizational commitment was significant (β= .164, p< .05), having self-esteem as mediator controlled on organizational commitment (β= .427, p< .05). Partly mediator was happening in this analysis when the results are significant with p< .05 in the final analysis. Therefore, the research hypothesis is accepted and clearly show there was partly mediator in this study. 242 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Table 2. Regression analysis of self-esteem effects as a mediator factor in relation between facilitating thinking of emotions with organizational commitment Test Step R R2 ∆R2 β Sig. .490 .240 Analysis one .000 X= FTE .000 .490* Y= Org. Commitment .379 .144 Analysis two .000 .479* X= FTE .000 Y= Self-Esteem .326 .106 Analysis three .000 X= Self-Esteem .000 .326* Y= Org, Commitment Analysis four .326 .106 .164* Block 1 : Self-Esteem .027 .512 .263 .156 .427* Block 2 : FTE .000 Note: *significant level p< .05, FTE: Facilitating Thinking of Emotions Hypothesis 3: There is effect of self-esteem as mediator in the relationship betweenunderstanding emotion with organizational commitment in public sector. The next findings (Table 3.0) shows the overall emotional intelligence have an effect on organizational commitment (β= .339, p< .05) in the analysis one. Emotional intelligence is also found to significantly influence on self-esteem of employees (β= .383, p< .05) in the analysis two. Next in the analysis three, mediator variable (self-esteem) were found to significantly influence organizational commitment (β= .326, p< .05). Lastly, in the last step of the analysis of four, the result of the analysis shows that the effect of emotional intelligence on organizational commitment was significant (β = .230, p< .05), having self-esteem as mediator controlled on organizational commitment (β = .251, p< .05). Partly mediator was happening in this analysis when the results are significant with p< .05 in the final analysis. Therefore, the research hypothesis is accepted and clearly show there was partly mediator in this study. Table 3. Regression analysis of self-esteem effects as a mediator factor in relation between understanding emotion with organizational commitment Test Step R R2 ∆R2 β Sig. .339 .115 Analysis one .000 .339* X= UE .000 Y= Org. Commitment .383 .147 Analysis two .000 X= UE .000 .383* Y= Self-Esteem .326 .106 Analysis three .000 .326* X= Self-Esteem .000 Y= Org, Commitment Analysis four .326 .106 .230* Block 1 : Self-Esteem .004 .400 .160 .054 .251* Block 2 : UE .002 Note: *significant level p< .05, UE: Understanding Emotion Hypothesis 4: There is effect of self-esteem as mediator in the relationship between regulation and management of emotion with organizational commitment in public sector. The last findings (Table 4.0) shows the overall regulation and management of emotion have an effect on organizational commitment (β= .483, p< .05) in the analysis one. Regulation and management of emotion is also found to significantly influence on self-esteem of employees (β= .477, p< .05) in the analysis two. Next in the analysis three, mediator variable (self-esteem) were found to significantly influence organizational commitment (β= .326, p< .05). Lastly, in the last step of the analysis of four, the result of the analysis shows that the effect of regulation and management of emotion on organizational commitment was significant (β= .124, p <.05), having self-esteem as mediator controlled on organizational commitment (β= .424, p< .05). Partly mediator was happening in this analysis when the results are significant with p< .05 in the final analysis. Therefore, the 243 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey research hypothesis is accepted and clearly show there was partly mediator in this study. Effects of partly mediator give meaning it is possible that some effects are from regulation and management of emotion itself, while the other is the effect of self-esteem as a mediator. Regulation and management of emotion can influence the commitment as a direct effect and can influence the commitment as an indirect effect. So, the hypothesis is accepted because there are traces of self-esteem as a mediator in the relationship between regulation and management of emotion and employee commitment in public sector. Partly mediator of the effect of this demonstrates overall regulation and management of emotion can also directly influence organizational commitment either with or without the influence of self-esteem. Table 4. Regression Analysis of self-esteem Effects as a Mediator factor in relation between regulation and management of emotion with organizational commitment Test Step R R2 ∆R2 β Sig. .483 .233 Analysis one .000 .483* X= RME .000 Y= Normative Commitment .477 .228 Analysis two .000 X= RME .000 .477* Y= Self-Esteem .326 .106 Analysis three .000 .326* X= Self-Esteem .000 Y= Normative Commitment Analysis four Block 1 : Self-Esteem .326 .106 .124 .116 .495 .245 .139 .424* Block 2 : RME .000 Note: *significant level p< .05, RME: Regulation and management of Emotion Discussions This study conducted by researchers as the discovery of knowledge about the emotional intelligence competencies (four dimensions) that can influence the organizational commitment in public sector. Selection of employees as a source of this study is appropriate because there is interaction between the employee and the scenario at work. Self-esteem is one of the main branches of human affective that possible can have an impact on the relationship between emotional intelligence and employee commitment. The findings of the analysis have confirmed that the four-research hypothesis is accepted when clearly show that there was a partly mediator effect on the self-esteem in the relationship between four dimensions of emotional intelligence with organizational commitment of the local authorities studied. Self-esteem is also as a partly mediator in the relationship between four dimensions of emotional intelligence with organizational commitment, such as perception and appraisal of emotions (β = .329, p< .05); facilitating thinking of emotions (β = .427, p< .05); understanding emotion (β = .251, p< .05); regulation and management of emotion (β = .424, p< .05). These results qualify as a mediator effect proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986) pointed out that a significant effect in final analysis which is showed the presence of partly mediator factor of the independent variable with the dependent variable. In short, clearly found that emotional intelligence dimension which is more dominant had the influence from self-esteem as mediator on organizational commitment among employee is facilitating thinking of emotions dimension (β = .427, p< .05). It also meaning that with positive self-esteem, employee can use their emotion with mind together when the stable emotion can help their mind to more rational. This situation will give the positive scenario in organization when employees always know how to make the good decision; as well they were very committed to organization. The results clearly show that self-esteem among employees in public sector is able to become a mediator in the relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational commitment. The existence of some mediators also means that the relationship between emotional intelligence and their four dimensions with organizational commitment can also be influenced by the self-esteem in a certain amount of variance, but at the same time can also be influenced by other factors that are not available in the model of this study for the next total variance. As an employee, to maintain the level of commitment in a consistent way was also no denying the need for them to have a high emotional intelligence, as well that employee is able to manage and control their emotions on an even keel, will leading to a more dynamic interpersonal interactions with colleague or boss. However, the strong emotional intelligence also requires positive self-esteem and self-confidence to achieve more accurate of self244 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey efficacy. Self-esteem and positive dynamics can be motivated the employees to more positive with their emotions and others emotion as well. The relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational commitment are influenced by self-esteem in this study were able to strengthen the opinion by Korman (1970, 1976) that employees who have high selfesteem are more motivated and will show better work compared with the low self-esteem. Based on the consistency of his theory, too, there is a positive correlation with self-esteem with employee commitments that lead to quality work. Therefore, employees who feel good about themselves are more confident of better work than employees who feel that they are worthless and not needed by others. This description leads to positive impact employees who have high self-esteem to the next behavior of employee commitment to the organization and its work. Certainly, we know that the need to ensure that employees’ self-esteem always at the optimum level for self-esteem and will create firmness nature rather than just be tentative, because people will be more determined to focus on his work without any worries and more optimistic with what they want to achieve. Emphasis self-esteem as mediators that give the effect on the relationship between emotional intelligence with the commitment of employees can also be concluded that besides self-esteem can give an effect on the relationship; of course, there are also other factors did not include in this study that can be studied by the researchers of the future researchers. The findings of this research study also support the findings of Neustadt et al. (2006) and Feng et al. (2012) because in their study also show there was partly mediators’ impact on selfesteem influence shaped the relationship between psychological variables. While not equal in the context of independent and dependent variables, the function of self-esteem as partly mediator is irrefutable through the literature study. In fact, studies Lourdes et al. (2011) also found self-esteem to become mediators in the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Combination of self-esteem and positive emotional intelligence leads to a dynamic work behavior. This is also consistent with what James (1994) say that humans have always been keen to help their self and the people around that together have a high self-esteem when mutual respect among people to create a more harmonious scene. It can be concluded that the function of self-esteem are able to become partly mediator detected in this study, also has put self-esteem in line with other factors that have not been studied as one of the factors that influence the relationship between emotional intelligence impact on employee commitment. Employees who have a high self-esteem or moderate positive always be positive about the ability to do a job when they feel that they was accepted by their colleagues and superiors. Taste acceptance in positive interpersonal interaction makes employees feel more confident and feel valued up to positive self-esteem also influence emotional intelligence become more stable and achieve rational mind. This statement can also support the view Schutte et al. (2002) pointed out that self-esteem and positive character as committed to can work together with high emotional intelligence when employees can receive advantages and disadvantages of themselves more openly. High emotional intelligence employees were able to consistently achieve positive mood as well high self-esteem because they can understand, can influence and can control the emotional of negative (Mayer et al., 1999). This research study is also consistent with the findings Janet and Ronald (2005) who discovered the function of self-esteem as mediators between emotions and organizational commitment at work, meaning that there was a direct effect and an indirect effect. In short, overall emotional intelligence as well the four dimensions of emotional intelligence among employees through self-esteem were as one of the factors that a catalyst which is has been detected in increasing organizational commitment in public sector. Conclusions This study concludes that in organizational psychology does not rely on the expertise and high intellect alone, but it is more on issues related to affective elements in man that should be established in advance in order to achieve the effectiveness of organizational commitment in work. It should be supported by the strength of the emotional intelligence competencies and involve self-esteem. Emotional intelligence also must be adapted to function as an employee needs to make employees more emotionally positive and stable, thereby making better quality work because it has a high commitment. Impact of self-esteem is a significant issue on emotional intelligence among employees in managing employee commitment at work when positive self-esteem help strengthen emotional intelligence among employees for the positive way. This study is certainly capable of inspiring new ideas that can lead in problem statement of other research in the years to come, as well can help add to the literature review of other researchers. 245 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey References Afzaal H. Seyal & Taha Afzaal (2013). An investigation of relationship among emotional intelligence, organizational commitment and job satisfaction: evidence from academics in Brunei Darussalam. International Business Research, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 217-228. Ashkanasy, N.M., Hartel, C.E.J., & Daus, C.S. (2002). Diversity and emotion: the new frontiers in organizational behavior research. Journal of Management, 28, 307-338. Baron, R. M dan Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 51(6): 1173-1182. Feng Kong, JingJing Zhao & Xuqun You (2012). Self-esteem mediator and moderator of the relationship between social support. Personality and Individual Differences, 53 (2012), 1039-1043. Ibrahim, F.W. & Abd. Karim, M.Z. (2004). Efficiency of local governments in Malaysia and its correlates. International Journal of Management Studies, vol.11(1), pp.57-70. James, E. Tingstad (1994). Improving your staff’s self-confidence. R&D Innovator. Volume 3, Number 2. Article 79. Janet R. McColl-Kennedy & Ronald D. Anderson (2005). Subordinate–manager gender combination and perceived leadership style influence on emotions, self-esteem and organizational commitment. Journal of Business Research, 58 (2005), 115-125. Korman, A.K. (1970). Toward a hypothesis of work behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology. 54, 31-41. Korman, A.K. (1976). Hypothesis of work behavior revisited and an extension. Academy of Management Review. 1, 50-63. Krejcie, R. V. & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 30: 607-610. Lourdes Rey, Natalio Extremera & Mario Pena (2011). Perceived emotional intelligence, self-esteem and life satisfaction in adolescents. Psychosocial Intervention, Vol. 20, pp. 227-234. Maimunah Aminuddin (1992). Human resource management. Kuala Lumpur: Fajar Bakti. Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence. 27, pp.267-298. McIntyre, L. J. (2005). Need to know: social science research methods. New York: McGraw Hill. Neustadt, Elizabeth; Chamorro-Premuzic, Tomas; Furnham, Adrian (2006). The relationship between personality traits, self-esteem, and attachment at work. Journal of Individual Differences. Vol 27(4), 2006, pp. 208-217. Schutte, N. S., Malouff J. M., Simunek, M., Hollander, S., & McKenley, J. (2002). Characteristic emotional intelligence and emotional well-being. 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Author Information Siti Sarawati Johar University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia 86400 Batu Pahat, Johor / Malaysia Contact E-mail: sarawati@uthm.edu.my 246 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Investigation of the Dissertations and Theses Regarding Pervasive Computing Games in Turkey Muhammet DEMIRBILEK Suleyman Demirel University Suleyman EZDEMIR Suleyman Demirel University Abstract: Pervasive computing known as ubiquitous computing is an emerging trend in every part of daily life as well as educational setting with mobile computing tools students and teachers are totally connected and consistently available any time. Using pervasive computing tools can be utilized in teaching and learning process in a number of ways. Employing games and gamification strategies in instruction combines situated learning and active learning. Studies on the effect of mobile game and gamification strategies on academic achievement are lacking. Researchers who want to continue on their investigation on mobile learning, gaming and gamification having difficulties to find related studies in their native language specifically in Turkey. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to analyze the thesis and dissertations which have done in Turkey about pervasive computing games. This research is a survey model meta-evaluation study. Research sample is composed of 25 PhD dissertations and 116 theses in YOK National Theses Database which can be accessed in full text. The research is limited by the dissertations and thesis about pervasive computing games written in Turkey and scanned with the keywords such as “educational games, gamification, and mobile games” and that were accessed in full text. Dissertations and theses accessed were analyzed according to the year of publication, title advisor, field, institute, university; keywords, methods, genre, and the result of hypothesis are studied variables. Keywords: Gamification, Educational games, Mobil games Türkiye'deki Yaygın Bilgisayar Oyunları Hakkındakı Doktora Ve Yüksek Lisans Tezlerinin İncelenmesi Özet: Yaygın bilgisayar kullanımı, her yerde bilgisayar kullanımı olarak bilinir ve günlük yaşamın her bölümünde ortaya çıkan bir eğilimdir. Mobil bilgisayar araçları ile eğitim ortamı da öğrencilerin ve öğretmenlerin her zaman birbirleriyle bağlantılı ve erişilebilir olmasını sağlar. Yaygın bilgisayar araçları öğretme ve öğrenme sürecinde çeşitli şekillerde kullanılabilir. Oyun ve oyun stratejilerini öğretimde kullanmak, yerleşik öğrenmeyi ve aktif öğrenmeyi birleştirir. Mobil oyun ve oyunlaştırma stratejilerinin akademik başarıya etkisi üzerine yapılan çalışmalar eksiktir. Mobil öğrenme, oyun oynama ve oyunlaştırma konusundaki araştırmalarına devam etmek isteyen araştırmacılar, özellikle Türkiye'de kendi dillerinde ilgili çalışmaları bulmakta zorluk çekiyorlar.Dolayısıyla bu araştırmanın amacı, Türkiye'de yaygın bilgisayar oyunları hakkında yapılan tez ve tezleri incelemektir. Bu araştırma bir anket modeli meta-değerlendirme çalışmasıdır. Araştırma örneği, YOK Ulusal Tez Veritabanında tam metin olarak erişilebilen 25 doktora ve 116 yüksek lisans tezinden oluşmaktadır. Araştırma, Türkiye'de yazılmış ve “eğitici oyunlar, oyunlaştırma ve mobil oyunlar” gibi anahtar kelimelerle taranan ve tam metinde erişilen yaygın bilgisayar oyunları hakkındaki tez ve tezlerle sınırlıdır. Tez ve erişilen tezler; yayın yılı, ünvan danışmanı, saha, enstitü, üniversite; anahtar kelimeler, yöntemler, tür ve hipotezin sonucu incelenen değişkenlerdir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Eğitsel oyun, Oyunlaştırma, Bilgisayar oyunları Giriş Yüksek öğretim kurumları günümüzde bilimin ilerlemesine olanak sağlayan temel kurumlardır. Her yıl yayınlanmakta olan yüzlerce tez, bilimin her alanına ışık tutmaktadır. Ülkemizde yapılan çalışmaların incelenmesi ve belirli kriterler doğrultusunda yayınlanması, çalışmanın kalitesi ve geçerliliğini artırmaktadır. Aynı zamanda bilimsel bilginin birikimliliği yapılan çalışmaların herkes tarafından ulaşılabilir olmasıyla kat ve kat artmaktadır. Yapılan her çalışmada farklı yöntemlerin kullanılması beklenen bir durumdur. Bir araştırmacı bir konu ile ilgili çalışmalarını yaparken literatür taraması yapar. O olanda yapılmış olan çalışmaların karakterize edilmesi, araştırmacı için birçok fayda sağlar. zellikle yayınlanan tezlerin hangi alanlarda ağırlıklı olarak yayın yapıldığı, 247 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey bu yayınların kaç yazar tarafından yapıldığı, bu yazarların hangi kurumlarda çalıştığı türünden bilgiler Türkiye deki araştırmaların genel karakterini ortaya koymak bakımından önem taşımaktadır. Türkiye‟de birçok alanda yayınlanan tezlerin genel karakterine yönelik araştırmalar yapılmasına rağmen, bilgisayar oyunları ve eğitsel oyunlar üzerine bu türden araştırmalara rastlanmamıştır. Günümüzde çocukların ve gençlerin vaktini dijital dünyada geçirdiğini görmekteyiz. Dijital alanda eğitim sürecinin devam edebilir olduğunu yurt dışında yapılan araştırmalarda görebilmekteyiz. Günümüzde dünyadaki en büyük şirketlerin teknoloji firmaları olduğunu görmekteyiz. Kendi donanım ve yazılımını üretebilen ülkelerin, ülke katma değerini büyük miktarda artırdığını ve ekonomilerinin güçlü olduğunu görmekteyiz. Ülkemizde bu bağlamda öneminin arttığı ve hız kazandıran yatırımların yapıldığını görmekteyiz. Mevcut uygulamalar ve dijital oyunlar incelendiğinde kısıtlı dil seçeneği, yerli yazılım sayısının az olması gibi sınırlılıklar tespit edilmiştir. itsel Oyun nsanda gelişim, yaşam boyu devam eden ve belirli dönemlerde farklılıklar gösteren uzun bir süreçtir. Bu süreçte bireyin gelişiminin desteklenmesi amacıyla oynadığı oyunların gelişim dönemleri dikkate alınarak planlanması ve hazırlanması ile oyunlar eğitsel bir nitelik kazanır. Belirlenen amaçlar doğrultusunda oyun alanı, oyuncu sayısı, oyuncu seviyesi, oyun süresi, tekrar sayısı ve kullanılacak araç gereç bakımından önceden planlanan oyunlara eğitsel oyun denir (MEB, 2012). ocuklar öğrenirken her zaman eğlenemezler ama eğlenirken kolayca öğrenebilirler. ocuk oyunla öğrendiği zaman öğrenmeyle ilgilenmeye başlar. ocuk oyunla öğrendiğinde öğrenmeyi sevmeyi öğrenir. Oyun sayesinde fazla enerjisini iyi yönde kullanır ve öğrenmekte zorluk çektiği birçok kuralı kolaylıkla öğrenir. Bu nedenle ana sınıfından yükseköğretime kadar tüm branşlardaki öğretmenler, öğrencilerini eğitirken oyunlardan faydalanarak, çocukların ilgilerini canlı tutabilirler, derslerini ve öğrencilerini geliştirebilirler (Altunay, 2004; Gedik, 2012). Eğitsel oyunlar, öğrencilerin mevcut bilgiler ile uygulama arasında ilişki kurmasını sağlamakta ve soyut bilgileri somutlaştırmaktadır. Oyunda, kalıp bilgilerden ziyade çocuğun yaşantısına dayalı, kendisinin yapılandırdığı, karmaşık ve aktif bir öğrenme söz konusudur. Oyun esnasında işbirliği yapılır. Böylece çocuk hem kendi öğrendikleri ile ilgili bilgi sahibi olmakta hem de bağımsız olarak hareket edebilmektedir (Akandere, 2012; Akt: Yeşilkaya, 2013). Oyunlaştırma Oyunlaştırma oyun bağlamında olmayan ortamlarda, bireyleri sürece dahil ederek motivasyonun ve isteğin artması ayrıca öğrenmeye teşvik etmek için oyun mekanikleri ve bileşenleri ile oyun tasarım unsurlarının kullanılmasıdır. Oyunlaştırma kavramı yeni yeni karşımıza çıkan bir kavramdır. Google istatistiklerinde oyunlaştırmanın araştırılması 2010 yılının yarısından sonra artış göstermiştir. Bu artış ilerleyen yıllarda da devam etmiştir. Oyun olmayan ortamlarda ya da oyun dışı ortamlarda bireylerin ilgilerinin artırılarak istenilen alana çekilmesi için verilen pekiştireçler olarak tanımlanan oyunlaştırma yaşamın birçok alanında kullanılmaktadır. Oyunlaştırma henüz çok yeni bir kavram olmasına rağmen farklı alanlarda aktif olarak kullanılan ve kişilerin büyük ilgisini çeken bir yöntemdir. Son zamanlarda bu yöntem ile birlikte karşımıza çıkan ve başarı elde etmiş uygulamalar şu şekildedir. Mango Health: Bu uygulama, hastaların ilaçlarını düzenli bir şekilde kullanmaları ve kendi kendilerini kontrol etmelerini sağlamak amacı ile kullanılmaktadır. Uygulama hastanın geçmiş sağlık bilgilerini, kullandığı ilaçlar hakkındaki bilgileri, ilaçları ne kadar kullanmaları gerektiği gibi özellikleri ile takvime bağlı kalan hastaların puan kazanma esasına dayanmaktadır. Kullanıcının isteğine bağlı olarak istenirse bu puanlar bağış ve hediye kartına dönüştürülebilme özelliğine sahip olarak tasarlanmış bir uygulamadır. Nike: Firma tarafından yapılan Nike Yaşam Koçu uygulamasında oyunlaştırma kullanılarak kişilerin daha fazla spor yaparak zinde kalmaları amaçlanmaktadır. Kişilerin taktığı Nike Yaşam Koçu bileziği ile harcadıkları kalori miktarı hesaplanarak internet sitesine aktarılmaktadır. Kişiler arasında yarış ortamı oluşturan bu oyunlaştırma tasarımı aynı zamanda hem Nike firmasına kendi reklamını yaptırarak para kazandırmakta hem de kişilerin sağlığını korumaktadır. 248 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Foursquare: Bu uygulamada kullanıcılar gittikleri yerlerde etiketlemeler yapmaktadırlar. Bu etiketler sonucunda kullanıcı oyunlaştırmanın bir parçası olan puanlar ve rozetler kazanmaktadır. Gittikleri yerlerde etiket yapan insanlar aynı zamanda gittikleri yer hakkında yorum yaparak kendinden sonra gelecek kişilere fikir vermektedir. Oyunlaştırma odeli Werbach ve Hunter oyunlaştırma yaklaşımını açıklayabilmek için 3 kategoriden oluşan bir oyunlaştırma modeli geliştirmiştir. Bu kategorileri oluşturan oyunlaştırma unsurları; dinamikler, mekanikler ve bileşenlerdir. Dinamikler: Oyunlaştırma unsurları piramidinde en üst sırada yer alan dinamikler oyuncuların direk olarak göremedikleri ya da başka bir ifade ile etkileşim kuramadıkları fakat oyunlaştırma tasarımında belki de önemli bir yere sahip olan kurgusal tasarım ögeleridir. Oyunlaştırmanın oyuncu üzerinde yaratacağı etkinin tasarlanmasında oyun dinamiklerinden faydalanılır. Farklı tiplerdeki oyunculara yönelik çeşitli oyun dinamikleri bulunmaktadır. Oyunlaştırmada kullanılan dinamikler oyunlaştırmanın tamamını etkileyeceği gibi oluşturulacak oyununda kurgusunu oluşturmaktadırlar. Werbach ve Hunter (2012) beş tane dinamik listelemişlerdir. Mekanizmalar: Dinamikler ilekurgusu yapılan oyunlaştırma mekanikler ile hayata geçirilir. Oyunlaştırmanın etkilediği en önemli değişkenlerden biri olarak görülen bağlılık (engagement) ve motivasyon düzeyini artırmak amacıyla kullanılırlar. Werbach ve Hunter (2012) on temel mekanik sıralamışlardır. Her bir mekanik aslında bir ya da birden çok dinamiğin gerçekleştirilmesine olanak sağlar. Bileşenler: Oyunlaştırma bileşenleri oyuncu ile etkileşime giren tasarım unsurları olara tanımlanabilir. Oyuncuların oyunlaştırılmış bağlamda etkileşime girdikleri rozet, lider tablosu, seviyeler, sanal hediyeler vs. gibi tasarım öğeleri oyunlaştırma bileşenlerinin sadece birkaçıdır. Kurgusu oyunlaştırma dinamikleri ve mekanikleri ile yapılan oyunlaştırma bu bileşenlerin kullanımı ile desteklenir. Werbach ve Hunter(2012) on beş tane bileşen sıralamışlardır. Method raştırma odeli Araştırmanın modelini nitel araştırma modeli oluşturmaktadır. Türkiye‟de eğitsel oyun içeren tezlerin ele alındığı bu araştırmada içerik analizi kullanılmıştır. çerik analizi, metinlerin düzenlenmesi, sınıflandırılması, karşılaştırılması ve metinlerden kuramsal sonuçlar çıkarılmasından oluşan bir araştırma tekniğidir (Cohen, Manion ve Morrison, 2007). Bu çalışmada içerik analizi, bu yönlerinin yanı sıra birbirlerine benzeyen verileri belirli kavramlar ve temalar çerçevesinde bir araya getirerek okuyucunun anlayacağı biçime dönüştürmesi nedeniyle tercih edilmiştir (Bauer, 2003; Fraenkel ve Wallen, 2000; Yıldırım ve imşek, 2005). Bu çalışmada, Türkiye‟deki eğitsel oyun anahtar kelimelerini içeren tüm yüksek lisans ve doktora programlarında tamamlanan tezler çalışma evrenini oluşturmaktadır. Yüksek ğretim Kurumu‟nun (Y K) tez veri tabanı incelenmiş ve tamamlanan tezler toplanmıştır. Figure 1‟de Türkiye‟deki eğitsel oyun anahtar kelimelerini içeren tezlerin yıllara göre yüzdelik dağılımı görülmektedir. Adet 16,0% 14,0% 12,0% 10,0% 8,0% 6,0% 4,0% 2,0% 1988 1989 1991 1995 1996 1997 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 0,0% Figure 1. Türkiye‟deki eğitsel oyun anahtar kelimelerini içeren tezlerin yıllara göre yüzdelik dağılımı Figure 1‟de yüzdelik dağılımı verilen tezlerden 49‟unun araştırma amacına uygun olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Figure 2‟de ise araştırma amacına uygun olduğu tespit edilen tezlerin yüzdelik dağılımı verilmiştir. Yayınlanan 249 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey tezlerin yıllara göre dağılımı incelendiğinde en çok yayın yapılan yılın 2015 (n=9) yılı olduğu tespit belirlenmiştir. Adet 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 20,0% 18,0% 16,0% 14,0% 12,0% 10,0% 8,0% 6,0% 4,0% 2,0% 0,0% Figure 2. Araştırma kriterlerine uygun tezlerin yıllara göre yüzdelik dağılımı Veri Toplama racı Y K tez merkezinden ulaşılan tezlerin analizini yapmak için Sözbilir, Kutu ve Yaşar (2012) tarafından geliştirilen “Yayın Sınıflama Formu”ndan yararlanılmıştır. Araştırma amacına uygun şekilde düzenlenen form üzerinde birtakım değişiklikler yapılmıştır. Verilerin Analizi Bu çalışmada, elde edilen verilerin değerlendirilmesinde içerik analizi tekniği kullanılmıştır. çerik analizi, toplanan verileri açıklayabilecek kavramlara ve ilişkilere ulaşmak amacıyla yapılmaktadır. Betimsel analizde özetlenen ve yorumlanan verilere, içerik analizinde daha derinlemesine bir işlem uygulanır ve betimsel yaklaşımla ortaya çıkartılamayan kavram ve temalar, bu analiz sayesinde ortaya çıkartılabilir. çerik analizinde benzer özellikteki veriler, okuyucunun anlayabileceği bir biçimde belirli kavramlar ve temalar altında bir araya getirilerek düzenlenir ve yorumlanır (Yıldırım ve imşek, 2005). Elde edilen veriler altı ana kriter üzerinden gerçekleştirilmiştir: (1) Araştırma deseni, (2)Veri Toplama Araçları, (3) Örneklem, (4) Örneklem Büyüklüğü, (5) Yeni Ürün Ortaya Koyma, (6)Araştırma değişkenlerine bağlı anlamlı farklılığın olup olmadığı. Results and Discussion Tablo 1‟de Y K Tez Merkezi veri tabanından elde edilen özet kısmında „eğitsel‟ ve „oyun‟ sözcüklerini içeren yüksek lisans ve doktora tezleri incelenmiştir. nceleme sonucunda 25 doktora, 116 yüksek lisans tezi olmak üzere toplamda 141 teze ulaşılmıştır. Variables Yüksek Lisans Table 1. Tez türüne göre dağılım N 116 Mean 82.3 Doktora 25 17.7 Total 141 100 Tablo 2‟de Y K Tez Merkezi veri tabanından elde edilen özet kısmında „eğitsel‟ ve „oyun‟ sözcüklerini içeren araştırma konusuna uygun yüksek lisans ve doktora tezleri; araştırma desenine göre sayısal dağılımları ve yüzde değerleri incelenmiştir. nceleme sonucunda nicel araştırma deseninin daha çok kullanıldığı (n=30) görülmektedir. Sonrasında sırası ile karma araştırma deseni (n=18) ve nicel araştırma deseni (n=1) gelmektedir. 250 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Variables Nicel Table 2. Araştırma desenine göre dağılım N Mean 30 61.2 Karma 18 36.7 Nicel 1 2.0 Total 49 100 Tablo 3‟de Y K Tez Merkezi veri tabanından elde edilen özet kısmında „eğitsel‟ ve „oyun‟ sözcüklerini içeren araştırma konusuna uygun yüksek lisans ve doktora tezleri; veri toplama araçlarının kullanım sıklığına göre sayısal dağılımları incelenmiştir. Table 3. Veri toplama araçlarına göre sayısal dağılım Variables N Anket 16 Başarı Testi Algı/ilgi/Tutum/yetenek/Kişilik vb testler Görüşme 20 Gözlem 6 Diğer 29 14 11 Tablo 4‟de Y K Tez Merkezi veri tabanından elde edilen özet kısmında „eğitsel‟ ve „oyun‟ sözcüklerini içeren araştırma konusuna uygun yüksek lisans ve doktora tezleri; örnekleme ait yaş gruplarına göre sayısal dağılımları ve yüzde değerleri incelenmiştir. ncelenen tezlerden beşi belirli bir örneklem grubu üzerinde çalışmamış olduğu tespit edilmiştir. nceleme sonucunda araştırmaların ortaokul (5. ve 8. sınıf arası) yaş grubunu üzerinde daha çok yapıldığı (n=23) görülmektedir. Sonrasında sırasıyla lisans (n=8), lise (n=8), ilkokul (1. ve 4. sınıf arası) (n=3), yetişkin (n=2) ve okulöncesi (n=1) gelmektedir. Table 4. rneklem yaş grubuna göre dağılımı Variables N Mean Okulöncesi 1 2.3 lkokul (1. Ve 4. Sınıf arası) 3 6.8 Ortaokul (5. Ve 8. Sınıf arası) 23 52.3 Lise 8 18.2 Lisans 7 15.9 Lisansüstü 0 0 Yetişkin 2 4.5 Total 44 100 Tablo 5‟de Y K Tez Merkezi veri tabanından elde edilen özet kısmında „eğitsel‟ ve „oyun‟ sözcüklerini içeren araştırma konusuna uygun yüksek lisans ve doktora tezleri; örneklem büyüklüğüne göre sayısal dağılımları ve yüzde değerleri incelenmiştir. ncelenen tezlerden beşi belirli bir örneklem grubu üzerinde çalışmamış olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Table 5. rneklem büyüklüğüne göre sayısal dağılım Variables N Mean 1-10 kişi arası 3 6.8 11-30 kişi arası 5 11.4 31-100 kişi arası 31 70.5 101-300 kişi arası 5 11.4 301-1000 kişi arası 0 0 1000 kişiden fazla 0 0 Total 44 100 251 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Tablo 6‟de Y K Tez Merkezi veri tabanından elde edilen özet kısmında „eğitsel‟ ve „oyun‟ sözcüklerini içeren araştırma konusuna uygun yüksek lisans ve doktora tezleri; yeni bir ürün üretilip üretilmediğine göre incelenmiştir. nceleme sonucunda otuz iki tezde farklı dijital platformlar için uygulama geliştirilmiş olup, uygulama tez konusuna göre araştırılmıştır. nceleme sonucunda on yedi tezin ise daha önceden geliştirilmiş olan uygulamaların tez konusuna göre araştırılmasının yapıldığı belirlenmiştir. Variables Geliştirme Table 6. Kullanılan ürünün özgünlüğü N Mean 32 Uyarlama 17 Eğitsel oyun üzerine yayınlanan tezler değişkenlerine göre incelendiğinde en çok rastlanan değişkenler sırasıyla, akademik başarı, tutum, motivasyon, problem çözme, kalıcılık, erişi, bilişsel yük, üst biliş ve yaratıcılık olarak tespit edilmiştir. Eğitsel oyun üzerine yayınlanan tezler değişken özelliklerine göre anlamlı farklılıklar gösterip göstermediği incelenmiştir. nceleme sonucunda otuz bir tez, tez konusuna ait değişkenler baz alınarak anlamlı farklılık göstermiştir (n=31). Altı tez, tez konusuna ait değişkenler baz alınarak anlamlı farklılık göstermediği tespit edilmiştir (n=6). On iki tezin ise belirli bir değişken üzerine farklılığını incelememiş olup, çoğunun tasarım odaklı bir çalışma olduğu tespit edilmiştir (n=12). Eğitsel oyun üzerine yayınlanan tezler sınırlılıkları ve karşılaşılan sorunlar açısından incelenmiştir. nceleme sonucunda en çok karşılaşılan sorunun zaman olduğunu göstermiştir. Zaman sorunu yaşayan araştırmacılar uygulama sırasında etkinlik süresinin yetersiz kaldığını, sürenin verimli kullanılamadığını belirtmiştir. Karşılaşılan bir diğer sorun da sınıf hakimiyeti olmuştur. Araştırmacılar sınıf hakimiyetinin sağlanmasının güç olduğunu, öğretmenin kendi rolünden çıkarak tamamen rehber rolüne girdiğini bunun da etkinliğin verimliliğini düşürdüğünü belirtmiştir. Geliştirilen uygulamalarda karşılaşılan sorunlarda ise tasarım eksikleri sık rastlanan bir sorun olduğu görülmüştür. Araştırmacılar tasarımsal eksiklerin örnekleme hitap etmediği ve ilgisinin azaldığı buna bağlı olarak ta çalışmanın verimliliğinin düştüğünü belirtmişlerdir. Donanımsal eksiklikler karşılaşılan bir diğer sorun olarak görülmektedir. Mevcut donanımların, uygulama gereksinimlerinin karşılamaması sebebiyle çalışmaların verimliğinin düştüğü gözlemlenmiştir. Bunlara ek olarak araştırmacıların çoğunluğu farklı örneklem grupları ve daha büyük örneklem grupları ile çalışılmasını tavsiye olarak belirtmiştir. Öneriler Bu çalışmanın sonuçları ışığında; Eğitsel oyunlar öğrencilerin tutum ve motivasyonlarına olumlu katkı sağladığı görülmüştür. Ayrıca akademik başarı ve kalıcılık üzerine yapılan çalışmalar incelendiğinde olumlu yönde anlamlı farklılık olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Eğitimin verimliliğini ve kalıcılığını artırmak için eğitsel oyunlar kullanılabilir. Eğitsel oyun üzerine yayınlanan tezler örneklem gruplarına bakıldığında, büyük bir çoğunluğun ortaokul düzeyi olduğu görülmektedir. Diğer örneklem grupları üzerinde çalışmaların artırılması literatürün çeşitlenmesini sağlayacaktır. Okulöncesi üzerinde yapılan çalışmaların sayısının oldukça az olduğu görülmektedir. Okulöncesi üzerinde veri toplamanın zor olması nedeniyle araştırmacılar bu örneklem grubu üzerinde çalışmaktan kaçınmaktadır. Küçük yaş grubu üzerinde yapılan çalışmaların artırılması literatürü zenginleştirecektir. Ayrıca küçük yaş grupları üzerinde yapılan araştırmaların ölçülmesinde kullanılacak yeni veri toplama araçlarının geliştirilmesi bu alandaki çalışmaların artmasına olanak sağlayabilir. Bilgisayar laboratuvarlarında yapılan çalışmaların çoğunda sınıf hakimiyeti sağlama konusunda sorunların ortaya çıktığı incelenen tezlerce belirlenmiştir. Araştırmacılar çalışmalarını uygulamadan önce kurallar oluşturmalı ve bunu çalışma grubuna bildirmesi benzer sorunların oluşmamasını sağlayabilir. alışmada kullanılacak uygulamanın kullanımı konusunda ön bilgi verilmesi öğretmenin rehber rolünden çıkarak temel rolünde kalmasını sağlayabilir. Araştırma kapsamında yapılan taramada ülkemizde bu tarz yazılımların yeterince bulunmadığı görülmüştür. Bu nedenle bu tür yazılımların hazırlanması için uygun kurumlar işbirliği yapılmalı ve oyun yazılımları çeşitlendirilmelidir. 252 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Yurtdışında kullanılan bilgisayar ortamında eğitsel oyun yazılımları incelenmeli, gerekirse türkçeleştirilmelidir. Bilgisayar destekli eğitsel oyunların, öğretimde daha fazla kullanılması için bilgisayar laboratuvarları öğrencilerin ihtiyaçlarını karşılayabilecek şekilde düzenlenebilir. Geliştirilen uygulamaların sistem gereksinimlerini karşılayabilecek donanımların sağlanması uygulanabilirliğini artıracaktır. Araştırmacılar geliştirmiş oldukları ya da uyarladıkları yazılımları araştırma öncesinde kullanılacak olan donanımda test etmeli, olası sorunlara karşı hazırlıklı olmalıdır. Geliştiriciler geliştirdikleri uygulamalarda örneklem gruplarına uygun içerikler hazırlaması gerekmektedir. Aksi takdirde birçok sorun meydana geldiği gözlemlenmiştir. rneklem grubuna uygun hazırlanan uygulamalar öğrencilerin motivasyon ve tutumunu doğrudan etkilediği tespit edilmiştir. Yaş grubuna uygun hazırlanan içerikler sayesinde öğrenci tarafından ilgisinin çekilmesini sağlayabilir. Yeni uygulamaların geliştirilmesi birçok ihtiyacı beraberinde getirmektedir. Bunlardan en önemlisinin zaman olduğunu birçok araştırma sonucunda sınırlılık olarak belirtilmiştir. nceden hazırlanmış plan dahilinde zamanı etkili kullanarak başarılı şekilde uygulamaların geliştirilmesi birçok kolaylık sağlayacaktır. Geliştiricilerin bir diğer ihtiyacı ise yazılımsal ve donanımsal alt yapının sağlanmasıdır. Teknolojinin gelişimi ile donanımsal ihtiyaçlar da her gün değişmektedir. Yeni donanımların maliyetlerin yüksek olması geliştiriciler için büyük bir sorun oluşturmaktadır. lgili kurumlarca, geliştiriciler için yapılacak yardımlar bu ihtiyaçların giderilmesini sağlayabilir. Kaynaklar MEB, Eğ tsel Oyunlar, Güzel Sanatlar ve Spor L seler , MEB Yayınları, 2012. Altunay, U. (2004). Ün vers te ng l zce hazırlık öğrenc ler n n ng l zceye yönel k tutumlarıyla bazı b reysel değ şkenler arasındak l şk ler. Yayımlanmamış araştırma. Dokuz Eylül Ün vers tes , Yabancı D ller Yüksekokulu, zm r. Ged k, M.,Ortaokul k nc Sınıf ğrenc ler n n Temel D l Becer ler n n Gel şt r lmes nde Eğ tsel Oyunların Başarı Ve Kalıcılığa Etk s . Doktora Tez Atatürk Ün vers tes Eğ t m B l mler Enst tüsü, Türkçe Eğ t m Ana B l m Dalı, Erzurum, 2012. AKANDERE, M. (2006).Eğ t c Okul Oyunları.(1. Baskı). Ankara: Nobel Yayınları Yeş lkaya, . (2013). 7.Sınıf Sosyal B lg ler Ders Zaman ç nde B l m Ün tes n n Eğ tsel Oyun Yöntem le ğret m . Yayınlamamış Yüksek L sans Tez , nönü Ün vers tes , Eğ t m B l mler Enst tüsü, Malatya. Werbach, K., and DanHunter. (2012), For The Win: How Game Thinking Can Revolutionize Your Business. Philedelphia: Wharton Dijital Editions. Quinn, C. “mLearning: Mobile, Wireless and In-Your-Pocket Learning”. Line Zine Ma- gazine, Vol. 2, Num. 1 (2000). Keegan, D. “The future of learning: ZIFF papiere 119: From eLearning to mLearning”. (2002). Retrieved Temmuz 08, 2008, from http://www.fernuni-hagen.de/ZIFF/ZP_119.pdf. Traxler, J. & Kukulska-Hulme, A. “Eva- luating Mobile Learning: Reflections on Cur- rent Practice”. In:mLearn 2005: Mobile tech- nology: The future of learning in your hands, Cape Town, South Africa, 2005. Wexler, S., Brown, J. , Metcalf, D., Ro- gers, D. & Wagner, E. “The e-learning Guild Report Mobile Learning” (2008). Retrieved from May 18, 2009, from: http:// www.elearningguild.com/research/archives/ index.cfm?id=132&action=viewonly O‟Malley, C, Vavoula, G, Glew, JP, Tay- lor, J, Sharples, M and Lefrere, P. “Guidelines for Learning/Teaching/Tutoring in a Mobile Environment/ Mobilearn project deliverable” (2003). Retrieved April 19, 2009, from: www. mobilearn.org/results/results.htm Yıldırım, A. ve mşek, H. (2005). Sosyal b l mlerde n tel araştırma yöntemler . Ankara: Seçk n Yayıncılık. Sözb l r, M. ve Kutu, H. (2008). Development and current status of sc ence educat on research n Turkey. Essays in Education [Special issue], 1-22. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education (6th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. 253 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Examination of Studies Conducted On Mobile Apps Desinged For Educating Students with Special Needs in Turkey Muhammet DEMIRBILEK Suleyman Demirel University Eda Naz KORKMAZ Suleyman Demirel University Abstract: A Assistive technology is designed to improve the functional capabilities of a child with a special need. It is important for providing effective instruction students with disabilities. In order to provide better education opportunities to student with disabilities, Mobile apps are one the best assistive Technologies that can provide a better education opportunity to students with special needs. Mobile apps can be used with virtually any electronic device, including mobile phones. There are numerous studies regarding mobile apps and their use in special education in western countries. However there is a need with similar studies in Turkey about analyzing mobile app studies on children with special needs. Therefore the purpose of this study is to examine studies conducted on mobile apps designed for educating students with special needs in Turkey which were published in Turkey in the last 5 years, between the years of 2014 and 2018. The articles were categorized based on specific criteria. These criteria are the year of publication, name of journals, number of authors, countries of the researchers, research field, method, characteristics of the research sample and the number of the references cited in the studies. This study is a content analysis of the articles published between 2014 and 2018 and provides an opportunity to identify current research topics, and methods, and in the area of Mobile Apps Designed special education. Keywords: Mobile apps, Special education, Assistive technology, Game Türkiye'de Özel Eğitime Muhtaç Öğrencileri Eğitmek İçin Yapılmış Mobil Uygulama Tasarımı Çalışmalarının İncelenmesi Özet: Yardımcı bir teknoloji, özel ihtiyacı olan bir çocuğun işlevsel yeteneklerini geliştirmek için tasarlanmıştır. Engelli öğrencilerin öğretimde etkili olmaları önemlidir. Engelli öğrencilere daha iyi eğitim olanakları sağlamak için Mobil uygulamalar en iyi yardımcı teknolojilerden biridir. Mobil uygulamalar, cep telefonları da dahil olmak üzere hemen hemen her elektronik cihazla kullanılabilir. Batı ülkelerinde mobil uygulamalar ve özel eğitimdeki kullanımları ile ilgili çok sayıda çalışma vardır. Ancak, Türkiye'de benzer ihtiyaçları olan ve özel ihtiyaçları olan çocuklar üzerindeki mobil uygulama çalışmalarını analiz etme konusunda bir ihtiyaç vardır.Bu nedenle, bu çalışmanın amacı, Türkiye'de son 5 yılda yayınlanan ve 2014 - 2018 yılları arasında yayınlanmış özel ihtiyaçları olan öğrencileri yetiştirmek için tasarlanan mobil uygulamalar üzerine yapılan çalışmaları incelemektir. Makaleler belirli kriterlere göre kategorize edilmiştir. . Bu kriterler; yayın yılı, dergilerin adı, yazar sayısı, araştırmacıların ülkesi, araştırma alanı, yöntem, araştırma örnekleminin özellikleri ve çalışmalarda belirtilen referansların sayısıdır. Bu çalışma, 2014 ve 2018 yılları arasında yayınlanan makalelerin içerik analizidir ve Mobil Uygulama Tasarlanmış özel eğitim alanında güncel araştırma konularını ve yöntemlerini belirleme fırsatı sunar. Anahtar Kelimeler: Mobil uygulamalar, Özel eğitim, Yardımcı teknoloji, Oyun Giriş Yardımcı teknolojiler, özel eğitime gereksinim duyan öğrencilerin fonksiyonel kapasitelerini geliştirmek için tasarlanmıştır. Engelli öğrencilerin eğitimi oldukça önemlidir. Mobil uygulamalar, engelli öğrencilere daha iyi eğitim fırsatı sağlayabilen en iyi yardımcı teknolojilerden biridir. Mobil uygulamalar, cep telefonları dahil bir çok elektronik cihazda kullanılabilmektedir.Yapılan araştırmalarda batı ülkelerinde mobil uygulamaların özel eğitimde kullanımı ile ilgili çok sayıda çalışma olduğu görülmektedir. Türkiye’de özel eğitime ihtiyaç duyan öğrencilere yönelik yapılan mobil uygulamaların analizine ihtiyaç vardır. Bu nedenle, bu çalışmanın amacı, Türkiye’de 2014-2018 yılları arası son 5 yılda yayınlanmış olan özel eğitime gereksinim duyan öğrenciler için tasarlanmış mobil uygulamalar üzerine yapılan çalışmaları incelemektir. Makaleler, belirli kriterlere göre kategorilere ayrılmıştır. Bu kriterler yayın yılı, dergilerin adı, yazar sayısı, 254 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey araştırmacıların şehirleri, araştırma alanı, yöntem, araştırma örneğinin özellikleri ve çalışmalarda atıfta bulunulan referanslardır. Bu çalışma, 2014 - 2018 yılları arasında yayınlanan makalelerin içerik analizi olup güncel araştırma konularını, yöntemlerini ve özel eğitim için tasarlanmış mobile uygulamalama alanlarının tanımlanmasını sağlamaktır. Özel Eğitim Kırcaali (1998) özel eğitimi şu şekilde açıklamıştır: Özel eğitim, ortalama öğrenci özelliklerinden önemli ölçüde farklılaşan öğrencilere sağlanan, bireysel olarak planlanmış ve bireyin bağımsız yaşama olasılığını en üst düzeye çıkarmayı hedefleyen eğitim hizmetlerinin bütünüdür. Özel eğitim gerektiren, diğer bir deyişle özel gereksinimli öğrenciler, genellikle şu gruplarda toplanmaktadır. • Zihin engelliler • Öğrenme güçlüğü gözlenenler • Duygu ve davranış bozukluğu olanlar • Bedensel yetersizliği olanlar • Konuşma ve dil sorunlular • İşitme engelliler • Üstün zekalılar ve üstün yeteneği olanlar Toplumda sık karşılaşılan bir hata da özür ve engel kavramlarının karıştırılmasıdır. Kırcaali(1998) özür ve engeli şu şekilde tanımlamaktadır: Özür, bedenin belli bir bölümünün (örneğin, bacaklar) ya da organının (örneğin, gözler) işlevlerini yeterince yerine getirememesi durumudur. Engel, özürlü bireyin toplumsal yaşamın yerine getirmede karşılaştığı sınırlılıklardır. Özürlü bir birey yaşantısında bir sınırlamayla karşı karşıya değilse engelli değildir ama yaşantısına devam ederken önüne sınırlamalar ortaya çıkıyorsa özürlü bir bireye engelli denilmektedir. Özür sahibi bireyler, iş ve işlemleri gerçekleştirirken kendilerini sınırlamayacak ortamlarda çalışıyorsa bu bireyler bu ortamlarda engelli olmamaktadırlar. Özrün engele dönüşmesinin önlenmesinin iki temel etkenini Kırcaali (1998) şu şekilde açıklamaktadır. • Özel Eğitim aracılığıyla özel gereksinimli bireylere bilgi ve beceri kazandırmak. • Yaşadığımız çevreyi özel gereksinimli bireylerin kullanabilecekleri hale getirmek. Dijital Mobil Cihaz Alan yazında mobil cihazlar için bir çok farklı tanım yapılmaktadır. Trifanova ve arkadaşları (2004) mobil cihazları küçük, tek başına kullanılabilir ya da diğer bir ifadeyle özerk, yanımızda sürekli taşımayı engelleyecek kadar rahatsız edici olmayan tü digital cihazlar olarak tanımlamaktadırlar. O’Connell ve Smith (2007) mobil cihazları küçük ekranlı, standart bir klavyeye sahip olmayan ve cebe sığabilen cihazlar olarak tanımlamışlardır. Kullanıcılar mobil cihazlara bir çok farklı yöntemle etkileşimde bulunabilirler. Örneğin veri girişi için mikrofonları, kameraları, tuş takkımlarını, küçük klavyeleri, tıklanabilir kaydırma tekerleklerini, mini denetim kollarını veya dokunmatk ekranları kullanabilirler (Saran, 2016). Guy (2012) mobil cihazları aşağıdaki gibi listelemiştir. • Cep telefonları • Kişisel cep telefonları (PDA) • Akıllı telefonlar • Tablet bilgisayarlar • Taşınabilir medya çalarlar • Taşınabilir oyun konsolları Mobil Öğrenme Alan yazın incelendiğinde farklı tanımlar bulunmaktadır. Mobil öğrenme; PDA’lar ve cep telefonları gibi kablosuz ağ teknolojilerini kullanan cihazlarla gerçekleştirilmesi mümkün olan her türlü eğitim faaliyetlerini kapsamaktadır (Pinkward ve ark., 2003; Colazzo ve ark., 2003; Ally, 2004; Keegan, 2005; Traxler, 2005; Schreurs, 2007). Kukulska-Hulma ve Shield (2008) ise mobil öğrenmeyi potansiyel olarak her an erişilebilir ve her yerde taşınabilir cihazlar kullanılarak gerçekleştirilen öğrenme olarak tanımlamaktadır. Wagner (2008) ise sürekli olarak okul sıralarında ve bilgisayar başında oturan öğrencilerin geleneksel öğreme yöntemlerinin dışına çıkarak, ihtiyacı olduğu anda ve zamanda, öğrenme ortamını istedği gibi kişiselleştirerek öğrenmesini gerçekleştirmesi olarak tanımlamaktadır. Mobil öğrenme yaygın olarak internet bağlantısı özeliği olan taşınabilir 255 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey cihazların eğitim amaçlı kullanımı olarak tanımlanmıştır (Wang, Wiesemes ve Gibbons, 2012). Bu tanımlardan yola çıkarak mobil öğrenmeyi şu şekilde tanımlayabiliriz: bir ağa bağlı her yere taşınabilir ve her zaman erişilebilir mobil cihazların yer, mekan ve zamandan bağımsız olarak kişinin kişisel eğitim ihtiyacı doğrultusunda kullanılmasına mobil öğrenme denmektedir. Yöntem Çalışmada 2014 ve 2018 yılları arasında Türkiye’de özel eğitime gereksinim duyan öğrencilerin eğitiminde mobil öğrenmenin kullanılması ile ilgili dergilerde yayınlanmış makaleler incelenmiştir. Bu çalışma nitel araştırma olup içerik analizi kullanılmıştır. İçerik analizi, sözel, yazılı ve diğer materyallerin sistematik yöntem uygulanarak incelenmesine olanak taıyan bir yaklaşımdır. (Tavşancıl & Aslan, 2001). İçerik analizi, bireylerin, ekiplerin, kurumların ilgilerinin belirlenmesinde ve tanımlanmasında kullanışlı bir tekniktir. (Büyüköztürk, 2015). Bu çalışmada içerik analizi yöntemi kullanılarak, Türkiye’de özel eğitime gereksinim duyan öğrencilerin eğitiminde mobil öğrenmenin kullanılması ile ilgili araştırmalar incelenmiştir. Aşağıdaki sorulara cevap aranmıştır. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Çalışmaların yıllara göre dağılımı nasıldır? Çalışmalarda tercih edilen örneklem türlerinin yıllara göre dağılımı nasıldır? Çalışmalarda yer alan toplam örneklemin türlere göre dağılımı nasıldır? Çalışmalarda yer alan yazar sayısının yıllara göre dağılıı nasıldır? Çalışmalarda hangi kazanımların eğitimi verilmek istenmiştir? Çalışmaların yayınlandığı dergilerin yıllara göre dağılımı nasıldır? Hangi şehirdeki yazarlar çalışmalara katılmıştır? Bulgular Türkiye’de özel eğitime ihtiyaç duyan öğrencilerin eğitiminde mobil öğrenmenin kullanımı ile ilgili çalışmalar incelenmiş ve 2014 – 2018 yılları arasında 10 adet çalışmaya ulaşılmıştır. Bunlardan 1 tanesi bildiri olarak sunulmuş olup sadece mobil uygulama geliştirilmiş ve örneklem üzerinde test edilmemiştir. Tablo 1’deki veriler doğrultusunda en çok 2016 yılında çalışma yapıldığı görülmektedir. 2018 yılında yapılmış herhangi bir çalışma bulunmamaktadır. Table 1. Makalelerin yıllara göre dağılımı Çalışma Türü 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 N Mean Makele 1 1 4 3 0 9 90 Bildiri 0 1 0 0 0 1 10 Total 1 2 4 3 0 10 100 2014 – 2018 yılları arasındaki makaleler incelendiğinde örneklem türlerinin yıllara göre dağılımı Tablo 2’de gösterilmiştir. En çok otizm spektrum bozukluğuna sahip bireyler üzerinde çalışma yapıldığı görülmektedir. Bunu işitme engelliler üzerinde yapılan çalışmalar izlemektedir. Table 2. Çalışmalardaki örneklem türleri 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 N Otizm Spektrum Bozukluğu –Hafif Düzeyde Zihinsel Engelli – Down Sendromu Mea n 0 0 0 1 0 1 10 Otizm Spektrum Bozukluğu 1 1 1 1 0 4 40 İşitme Engelli 0 1 2 0 0 3 30 Özel Eğitime İhtiyaç Duyan 0 0 0 1 0 1 10 Hafif Düzeyde Zihinsel Engelli 0 0 1 0 0 1 10 Toplam 1 2 4 3 0 10 100 Yüzde 10 20 40 30 0 100 Çalışma Türü 256 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey 2014 – 2018 yıllarında yapılan 10 çalışma incelendiğinde Tablo 3’de yer alan veriler ortaya çıkmıştır. Toplam 74 öğrenci ile çalışmalar yürütülmüştür. En çok örneklemi işitme engelli öğrenciler oluşturmaktadır. Table 3. Çalışmalardaki örneklem türleri Örneklem N Mean Otizm Spektrum Bozukluğu 14 18,9 Hafif Düzeyde Zihinsel Engelli 13 17,6 Down Sendromu 4 5,4 İşitme Engelli 39 52,7 Özel Eğitie İhtiyaç Duyan 4 5,4 Toplam 74 100 İncelenen 10 çalışmadaki yazar sayılarının yıllara göre dağılımı Tablo 4’te belirtilmiştir. Çalışmalarda en fazla 5 yazar yer almıştır. 3 yazarlı makalelerin sayısı en fazla olduğu görülmektedir. Table 4. Çalışmalardaki yazar sayısı Çalışma Türü 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 N Yüzde 2 Yazar 0 0 2 1 0 3 30 3 Yazar 0 2 0 2 0 4 40 4 Yazar 0 0 2 0 0 2 20 5 Yazar 1 0 0 0 0 1 10 Toplam 1 2 4 3 0 10 100 Yüzde 10 20 40 30 0 100 İncelenen 10 makalede verilmek istenen kazanımlar Tablo 5’te belirtilmiştir. Karşılaştırma yani büyüklük küçüklük, azlık çokluk gibi temel kavramlar ile iş ve işlemlerin sırasını öğretilmesini amaçlayan sıralama kazanımı en fazla çalışılan konular arasında olduğu görülmektedir. Table 5. Mobil öğrenme ile gerçekleşen kazanımlar Kazanımlar N Yüzde Cümle Düzenleme 1 10 Çizelge Kullanım Becerisi 1 10 Fen ve Teknoloji 1 10 Karşılaştırma 2 20 Okuduğunu Anlama (Hikaye Kitabı) 1 10 Okuma yazma 1 10 Sıralama 2 20 Sosyal beceri 1 10 Toplam 10 100 2014 – 2018 yılları arasında yapılan 10 çalışmanın yer aldığı dergilerin yıllara göre dağılımı Tablo 6’da gösterilmektedir. Özel eğitime gereksinim duyan öğrenciler için mobil uygulama tasarlanması ile ilgili makaleler en çok Eğitim ve Bilim dergisinde yer almıştır. 257 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Çalışma Türü 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Toplam Yüzde Table 6. Çalışmaların yayınlandığı dergiler XVII. Akademik Bilişim Konferansı 0 1 0 0 0 1 10 Anemon 0 1 0 0 0 1 10 Eğitim Ve Bilim 0 0 3 1 0 4 40 Eğitim Teknolojisi Kuram Ve Uygulama EURASIA Journal Of Mathematics Science And Technology Education International Journal Of Child – Computer Interaction 0 0 1 0 0 1 10 0 0 0 1 0 1 10 1 0 0 0 0 1 10 Istanbul Journal Of Innovation in Education 0 0 0 1 0 0 10 Toplam 1 2 4 3 0 10 100 Yüzde 10 20 40 30 0 100 İncelenen 10 çalışmada yer alan araştırmacıların şehirleri Tablo 7’de belirtilmiştir. Toplam 25 araştırmacı özel eğitime gereksinim duyan öğrencilerin mobil öğrenmesi ile ilgilenmiş olup en fazla İstanbul’dan katılım sağlanmıştır. Table 7. Araştırmacıların şehirleri Örneklem N Mean Bursa 1 4 Eskişehir 5 20 İstanbul 7 28 İzmir 1 4 Kuzey Kıbrıs 5 20 Manisa 4 16 Sakarya 1 4 New Jersey (ABD) 1 4 Toplam 25 100 Bireyselleştirilmiş bir eğitim sunmaya imkan veren mobil öğrenme ile farklı yetersizliğe sahip bireylere yardımcı olunabilir. Fernández-Lópeza (2013)’e göre farklı yetersizliğe sahip öğrencilere mobil öğrenme uygulamalarının avantajları şunlardır. • Farklı tehlikeli uyarıcı yardımcı bir araç olmaları, • Öğrenme süreçlerini destekleyici bir unsur olmaları, • Günlük aktivitelerde diğer insanlarla iletişim sağlama aracı olmaları. Alan yazın incelendiğinde mobil öğrenme ile ilgili araştırmalarda engelli olan öğrenciler için mobil uygulamaların azlığı dikkat çekmektedir. Engelli olan öğrenciler için yapılan araştırmaların büyük bir bölümü otistik ve benzeri yetersizlikler üzerine yapılmıştır (Cevahir Ve Özdemir, 2015). Fernández-Lópeza (2013) Elektronik araçların ve çoklu ortam içeriklerinin öğrenmeye ilgilerini arttırdığını, katılımcıların herhangi bir zamanda ve yerde öğretimsel içeriğe ulaşabildiklerini, eğitimsel oturumların eğitim uygulamalarına benzer öğrencilere yardımcı olacak şekilde tasarlanması gerekliliğini tespit etmişlerdir. Şenyürek, Yılmaz ve Köse (2017) IOS tabanlı bir uygulama geliştirerek öğrencilerin kart sıralama becerisinin geliştirilmesine katkı sağlamayı hedeflemişlerdir. Yaptıkları ön test ve son test ile çocukların uygulamayı anlamlı bir şekilde kullanabildikleri ve olumlu tepkiler verdiklerini görmüşlerdir. Soykan ve Özdamlı (2017), otizm spektrum bozukluğa sahip öğrenciler için yazılım geliştirmişler ve öğrencilerin eğitim etkinliklerine ilgilerinin arttığını ve olumlu eğitim sonuçlarına ulaşıldığını gözlemlemişlerdir. Eliçin ve Tunalı (2016), otizmli çocuklara çizelge kullanımının öğretiminde tablet bilgisayar kullanımının etkililiğini deperlendirmişlerdir. Denekler arası çoklu yoklama modelini kullanarak elde ettikleri veriler, çizelge kullanım becerilerini edinme, sürdürme ve genellemelerinde tablet bilgisayar aracılığı ile sunulan aşamalı yardımla öğretimin etkili olduğunu 258 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey göstermiştir. Hanaylı, Serbest ve Ürekli (2015) otizm engeli bulunan bireylerin sosyal hayatlarını daha yaşanabilir, anlaşılabilir hale getirmek için bir uygulama tasarlamışlardır. Bu kapsamda geliştirilen uygulamanın otizm engeli bulunan çocukların öğrenme bozukluklarını, anlama-algılama ve uygulama problemlerine destek olması planlanmıştır. Herhangi bir denek üzerinde uygulamanın etkililiği ölçülmemiştir. Karanfiller, Göksu ve Yurtkan(2017) özel eğitime gereksinim duyan öğrencilere temel kavramların öğretimine yönelik bir uygulama geliştirmişlerdir. Bu kavramlar miktar, uzunluk, genişlik, büyüklük gibi kavramlardır. Makalede özel eğitimine gereksinim duyan öğrencilerin engeli belirtilmemiştir. Yapılan testlerin sonucunda uygulamanın kullanılabilirliğini gözlemlemişlerdir.Yaman, Dönmez, Avcı, Yurdakul (2016) işitme engelli çocuklarınokuma yazma öğretiminde mobil araçlarının uygulanabilirliğini incelemek için mobil uygulama geliştirmişlerdir. Verilerin analizi sonucunda öğrenme ortamında teknolojiden faydalanılmasının öğrencilerin derse yönelik ilgilerini ve motivasyonlarını arttırdığını görmüşlerdir.Yaman, Dönmez ve Yurdakul (2015) işitme engelli bireylerin okuma yazma becerilerinin geliştirilmesinde kullanılacak bir mobil uygulama geliştirmişlerdir. Karışık sırada verilen cümlelerin düzenlenmesi işlemlerinin öğretmenle birlikte yapılması gerektiği sonucuna ulaşmışlardır. Dönmez, Yaman, Şahin ve Yurdakul (2016) işitme engelli öğrencilerin okuma yazma öğretimi için bir mobil uygulama geliştirme süreci betimlemişlerdir. Özgüç ve Cavkaytar (2016) hafif düzeyde zihinsel engeli bulunan öğrencilere Fen ve Teknoloji dersindeki öğrenme etkinliklerinin arttırılması için tablet bilgisayarlarda kullanılacak bir uygulama egliştirmişlerdir. Mobil teknolojinin Fen ve Teknoloji dersi programına entegrasyonu ile öğrencilerin akademik performanslarında gelişme kaydedildiğini ve uygulamanın öğretmenlere de olumlu katkılar sağladığını görmüşlerdir. Doenyas, Şimdi, Özcan, Çataltepe ve Birkan (2014) otizmli öğrencilere sıralama becerisini kazandıracak IOS tabanlı bir uygulama geliştirmişlerdir. Mobil uygulamayı farklı yaşlardaki otizmli öğrencilere uygulamışlar ve mobil uygulamanın etkililiğinin yaşa göre farklılaştığını görmüşlerdir. Benzer sıralama uygulamalarının nasıl geliştirileceği ile ilgili öneriler sunmuşlardır. İncelenen makaleler mobil öğrenmenin özel eğitime gereksinim duyan öğrencilerin eğitiminde kullanılmasının faydalı olduğunu göstermektedir. Sonuç ve Öneriler Türkiye’de özel eğitime gereksinim duyan öğrenciler için yapılan mobil uygulama tasarlama ile ilgili makaleler incelendiğinde 2014 ve 2018 yılları arasında çalışmalar yapıldığı görülmüştür. 2018 yılında yapılmış çalışmaya rastlanılmamıştır. Mobil cihaz kullanımının artmasıyla hayatımızda daha çok yer edinen mobil uygulamaların özel eğitime gereksinim duyan öğrencilerin eğitiminde kullanılması eğitimi daha eğlenceli ve etkili hale getirebilmektedir. Fakat Türkiye’de bu alanda yapılan çalışma sayısının yetersiz olduğu görülmektedir. Özel Eğitime gereksinim duyan öğrenciler için daha fazla mobil uygulama geliştirme çalışmaları yapılabilir. Kaynaklar Ally, M. (2004). Using Learning Theories to Design Instruction for Mobile Learning Devices. J. Attewell, & C. S. Smith içinde, Mobile Learning Anytime Everywhere. A book of Papers from MLearn 2004 (s. 5-8). London: Learning and Skills Development Agency. Cevahir, H. & Özdemir, M. (2015). Mobile Learning Researches Towards Individuals with Disabilities: A Content Analysis Between 2005 and 2015. Istanbul Journal of Open and Distance Education (IJODE). 31-40. Christinaki, E., Vidakis, N. & Triantafyllidis, G. (2014). A Novel Educational Game For Teaching Emotion İdentification Skills To Preschoolers With Autism Diagnosis. Computer Science And Information Systems, 11(2), 723-743. Colazzo, L., Molinari, A., Ronchetti, M., & Trifonova, A. (2003). Toward A Multi-Vendor Mobile Learning Management System. Proceedings For The World Conference On E-Learning. Phoenix, U.S.A. Dönmez, O., Yaman, F., Şahin, Y. L. & Yurdakul, I. K. (2016). İşitme Engelliler İçin Mobil Uygulama Geliştirme Süreci: Çarkıfelek Örneği. Eğitim Teknolojisi Kuram ve Uygulama, 1(6), 22-41. Eliçin, Ö. & Tunali, V. (2016). Otizmli Çocuklara Aşamalı Yardımla Çizelge Kullanım Becerilerinin Kazandırılmasında Tablet Bilgisayar Çizelge Programının Etkililiği. Eğitim Ve Bilim, 41(183), 29-46. Eripek, S. (1998) Zihin Engelliler. Özel Eğitim. Anadolu Ünversitesi Yayınları. 39-48. Fernández-Lópeza, A., Rodríguez-Fórtizb, M. J., Rodríguez-Almendrosb, M. L., & Martínez-Segurac, M. J. (2013). Mobile Learning Technology Based On Ios Devices To Support Students With Special Education Needs. Computers & Education, 61, 77-90. Guy, M. (2012). Mobile Practices In Everyday Life: Popular Digital Technologies And Scholing Revisited. British Journal Of Educational Technology. 43(5), 770-782. 259 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Hanayli, M. C., Serbest, S. & Ürekli, T.(2015). Otizmli Çocukların Sosyal Becerilerini Geliştirmeye Yönelik Android Uygulaması. Xvıı. Akademik Bilişim Konferansı. Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi. Karanfiller, T., Göksu, H. & Yurtkan, K.(2017). Özel Eğitim Gereksinimi Olan Öğrenciler Çin Temel Kavram Öğretimi Mobil Uygulama Tasarımı. Eğitim Ve Bilim. 42(192). 367-381. Keegan, D. (2005). The Incorporation Of Mobile Learning Into Mainstream Education And Training. Paper Presented At The 4th World Conference On M-Learning. Cape Town: South Africa. Kircaali, G. (1998). Özel Gereksinimli Bireyler Ve Özel Eğitim. Özel Eğitim. Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları. S.5-13. Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2010). Mobile Learning As A Catalyst For Change. Open Learning The Journal Of Open And Distance Learning. 25(3), 181-185. Özgüç, C. S. & Cavkaytar, A. (2016). Zihin Yetersizliği olan Ortaokul Öğrencilerinin Bulunduğu Bir Sınıfta Öğretim Etkinliklerinin Teknoloji Desteği İle Geliştirilmesi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 41(188), 197-226. Pinkwart, N., Hoppe, H. U., Milrad, M., & Perez, J. (2003). Educational Scenarios For The Cooperative Of Personal Digital Assistants. Journal Of Computer Asisted Learning, 19(3), 383-391. Schreurs, J. (2007). Mobile E-Learning Course Scenario Model On Pda. International Journal Of Interactive Mobile Technologies, 1(1), 48-55 Şenyürek, E., Yilmaz, D., & Köse, H. (2017). Otizmli Çocukların Eğitimi İçin Mobil Uygulama. Istanbul Journal Of Innovation In Education. 3(1). 63-76. Soykan, E. & Özdamli, F. (2017). Evaluation Of The Android Software For Special Needs Children. Eurasia Journal Of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 13(6), 2683-2699. Traxler, J. (2005). Defining Mobile Learning. In Proceedings. Iadis International Conference Mobile Learning 2005, 261-266. Yaman, F., Dönmez, O. & Yurdakul, I. K. (2015). İşitme Engelli Bireylerin Okuma – Yazma Eğitimine Yönelik Mobil yulama Geliştirilmesi: Cümle Düzenleme Uygulaması. Anemon, 3(2), 73-95. Yaman, F., Dönmez, O., Avcı, E. & Yurdakul, I. K. (2016). İşitme Engelli Öğrencilerin Okuma –Yazma Eğitiminde Mobil Uygulama Kullanımı. Eğitim ve Bilim, 41(188), 153-174. Wagner, E. D. (2008). Realizing The Promises Of Mobile Learning. Journal Of Computing In Higher Educaiton, 4(14), 4-14. 260 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Pre-Service Teachers’ Views for Universities’ Social Media Use and Their Levels of Benefit from Social Media Regarding University Choice Mustafa KOC Suleyman Demirel University Bahar ARIKAN Suleyman Demirel University Abstract: This study aims to investigate pre-service teachers’ views for universities’ social media use and their levels of benefit from social media in their university choices. It was designed with descriptive survey methodology. Using convenience sampling, the sample comprised 100 volunteer students enrolled in the teacher education programs in the College of Education, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey in 2017-2018 academic year. The data were collected through a questionnaire consisting of demographic information form and scales related to social media in the literature. The results showed that the participants mostly followed Facebook and Twitter during their university preference periods, connected to the Internet through mobile phones and home computers, and more than half spent 1-2 hours a day on social media. During the process of university preference, participants mostly benefited from universities’ web sites, guidance services and student forums while moderately benefiting from Facebook and Youtube. They believe that the involvement of universities in social media will increase their institutional recognition and provide an innovative image. It was found that the participants mostly examined transportation, campus and social facilities of universities on social media. Their views and usage status were not significantly dependent on their gender, age and major. Keywords: Pre-service teachers, Social media, University choice, Survey Öğretmen Adaylarının Üniversitelerin Sosyal Medya Kullanmalarına Yönelik Görüşleri ve Üniversite Tercihinde Sosyal Medyadan Yararlanma Düzeyleri Özet: Bu çalışmanın amacı öğretmen adaylarının, üniversitelerin sosyal medya kullanmalarına yönelik görüşlerini ve kendi üniversite tercih sürecinde sosyal medyadan yararlanma durumlarını incelemektir. Çalışma nicel araştırma paradigması içinde yer alan betimsel yöntemlerinden genel tarama modeli ile desenlenmiştir. Araştırmanın örneklemi 2017-2018 eğitim-öğretim yılında Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi lisans programlarında öğrenim görmekte olan ve elverişli örnekleme yoluyla ulaşılmış 100 gönüllü üniversite öğrencisinden oluşmuştur. Verilerin toplanmasında demografik bilgi formu ve alanyazında bulunan sosyal medyayla ilgili ölçeklerden oluşan anket formu kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen bulgulara göre, katılımcıların üniversite tercih dönemlerinde en çok Facebook ve Twitter ortamlarını takip ettikleri; cep telefonu ve ev bilgisayarından internet bağlantısı sağladıkları ve yarısından fazlasının günde 1-2 saat sosyal medyada vakit geçirdikleri görülmüştür. Üniversite tercih ederken en çok üniversite web sayfalarından, rehberlik servislerinden ve öğrenci forumlarından yararlanma ile birlikte orta düzeyde Facebook ve Youtube sitelerinden faydalandıkları tespit edilmiştir. Adaylar, üniversitelerin sosyal medyada yer almalarının tanınırlıklarını artıracağını ve yenilikçi bir imaj sergileyeceklerini düşünmektedir. Tercih döneminde, katılımcıların sosyal medyadan en çok üniversitelerin ulaşım, yerleşke ve sosyal imkânlarını inceledikleri ortaya çıkmıştır. Katılımcıların görüş ve kullanma durumları ile cinsiyet, yaş ve branşları arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı ilişkiler bulunamamıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Öğretmen adayları, Sosyal medya, Üniversite tercihi, Tarama Giriş Web 2.0 teknolojileri ile birlikte ortaya çıkan sosyal medya kavramı, bireylerin ve kurumların çevrimiçi dijital içerik üretme ve paylaşma platformları olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Bu ortamların hayatımızın her alanına girmesiyle birlikte; bilgiye ulaşma ve paylaşma, arkadaş edinme, sohbet etme, eğlenme, reklam ve alışveriş yapma gibi eylemlerimize ait alışkanlıklarımız da değişmektedir. Son on yıl içerisinde sosyal medya kullanıcı sayısı sürekli artış göstermektedir. Bireyler, kendileri hakkındaki konuları araştırma ve bunlar hakkında karar verme süreçlerinde sosyal medyadan yararlanmaktadır. 261 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Tüm yaş grubundan birçok insan sosyal ağları farklı amaçlar doğrultusunda kullanmaktadır. Ayrıca sosyal ağlar günlük haber ve olayların paylaşımı içinde etkin bir şekilde kullanılmaktadır. Sosyal paylaşım siteleri ilgi duyulan topluluk oluşturma ve işbirlikçi çalışma ortamı oluşturma gibi farklı tarz olanakları da bünyesinde barındırmaktadır. Sosyal ağların iletişim becerilerini geliştirdiği ve sosyalliği artırdığı yapılan çalışmalarda göze çarpmaktadır. Ayrıca eğitimciler ve öğrencilere de birçok yarar sağlamaktadır. Sosyal Medya Sosyal medyanın temeli Ward Christen ve Randy Suess adındaki iki arkadaşın 1978 yılında arkadaşları ile sürekli iletişim içinde bulunabilmek için geliştirdikleri BSS isimli yazılıma dayanmaktadır. Daha sonra sırasıyla MIRC, ICQ ve MSN Messenger gibi yazılımlar üretildi ve kullanıcıların iletişim kurmaları ve sosyalleşmeleri için kullanıldı. 2000’li yılların başlamasıyla resim paylaşma sitesi olarak bilinen Flickr ve günümüzün en popüler sosyal ağlarından biri olan Facebook yayına sunuldu. Mark Zuckerberg tarafından geliştirilen Facebook ilk başlarda bir üniversite öğrencilerinin kendi aralarında iletişim kurmaları için yapılandırılmasına rağmen kısa sürede tüm dünyanın kullanımına açıldı. Web 2.0 teknolojileri ile birlikte ortaya çıkmış olan sosyal medya geleneksel medyadan farklı olarak kullanıcılara bizzat mesaj oluşturma ve paylaşma olanağı sunan bir platform olarak tanımlanmaktadır (Lewis, 2010). Karakteristik olarak sosyal medya kullanıcılara dinamik ve kolay programlama yapma, dijital içerik üretme, yüksek etkileşim sağlama, iki yönlü iletişim kurma ve ücretsiz katılım sağlama gibi önemli ve yeni imkânlar sağlamaktadır. Bu mecraları kullanarak bireyler çevrimiçi topluluklar kurabilmekte, fikir ve duygularını paylaşabilmekte, aile bireyleri ve arkadaşları ile sürekli temas kurabilmekte, yeni arkadaşlıklar ve ilişkiler başlatabilmekte, ürün tanıtımı ve pazarlama yapabilmekte ve siyasi propaganda ve seçim kampanyaları yürütebilmektedir. Sosyal ağlar, bloglar, microbloglar, vikiler, içerik toplulukları ve forumlar en önemli sosyal medya araçları ve ortamları olarak bilinmektedir (Aslan, 2011). Günümüzde yaygın olarak kullanılan sosyal medya araçları arasında Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube ve WhatsApp gösterilebilir (Tablo 1). Tablo 1. Popüler sosyal medya ortamları Sosyal medya Tanımı ve özellikleri Facebook Bireylerin profil oluşturarak aile, arkadaş ve meslektaşları ile iletişim kurabildikleri ve fotoğraf, video ve mesaj paylaşabildikleri bir web sitesi. Instagram Kullanıcıların özellikle mobil araçları ile çektikleri fotoğrafları paylaştıkları online ortam. Twitter Kullanıcıların kendi duvarlarında “Tweet” adı verilen 140 karakterlik kısa mesaj paylaşımı imkanı veren web sitesi. YouTube Video izleme, paylaşma ve yorum yapmaya olanak sağlayan online ortam. WhatsApp Akıllı telefonlar için geliştirilmiş anlık mesajlaşma ve arama yapma uygulaması. Dünya çapında sosyal medya kullanıcı sayıları giderek artmaktadır. Şekil 1’deki istatistikler incelendiğinde, 2017 yılında 2,46 milyar olan sosyal medya kullanıcı sayısının 2018 yılında 2.62 milyar ve 2021 yılında ise 3,02 milyar olacağı tahmin edilmektedir (Statista, 2017). Yine aynı kaynağın istatistiklerine göre, 2017 yılı itibariyle en popüler sosyal medya araçları arasında 2,06 milyar kullanıcı sayısı ile Facebook, 1,5 milyar kullanıcı ile YouTube ve 1,3 milyar kullanıcı ile WhatsApp ilk üç sırada yer almaktadır. Facebook kullanımındaki önde gelen ülkeler incelendiğinde, dünyadaki toplam kullanıcıların %11’ini oluşturan Hindistan ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri birinci sırada, %6’sını teşkil eden Brezilya ve Endonezya ikinci sırada ve %4’ünü oluşturan Meksika üçüncü sırada yer almaktadır. Türkiye %3 katılımcı oranıyla dördüncü konumdadır. Ayrıca Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu’nun (TÜİK) Ağustos 2017 itibariyle yayınladığı 17-74 yaş aralığındaki bireylerin son üç aylık internet kullanım amaçları verilerine göre, %83,7 oranıyla sosyal medya üzerinde içerik paylaşma ilk sırada yer almaktadır. Bu veri Türkiye’de internet kullanımının büyük çoğunluğunun sosyal medya ortamlarındaki etkileşimlerden oluştuğunu göstermektedir. Başka bir deyişle sosyal medya kullanımı internet kullanımının önemli bir parçası haline gelmiştir. 262 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Şekil 1. Dünyada sosyal medya kullanıcı sayıları (www.statista.com) Üniversite Tercihi Üniversite tercihi öğrencilerin bir yükseköğretim programına yerleşebilmesi için yapılan tercihlere denir. Tercih yaparken öğrencilerin dikkat etmesi gereken bazı hususlar vardır. Tercih edilen yalnızca bir üniversite bölümü ve öğretim programı gibi görünse de aslında yapılan işlem kişinin hayatı boyunca sürdüreceği mesleğini seçmektir. Bu nedenle doğru tercihin yapılabilmesi için bireyin kendi özelliklerini, becerilerini, ilgi ve ihtiyaçlarını, düşüncelerini ön planda tutarak üniversiteleri ve meslekleri iyice araştırarak, sistemin gerektirdiği üzere elde ettiği farklı puan türlerine ait puan ve başarı sıralarını dikkate alması gerekir. Tercih yaparken tercih edilecek okulun özel koşullarını kılavuzdan mutlaka dikkatlice okunmalıdır. Okulun yerleşke koşulları, yurt olanakları, yurt ücretleri, yerleşkenin nerede olduğu gibi koşullar hem kılavuzdan hem de medya araçları kullanarak detaylı bir şekilde araştırılmalıdır. Üniversite tercihi yaparken öğrencilerin dikkat ettikleri değişkenler bir araştırmada, okul türü, cinsiyet ve gelir düzeyi değişkenleri için grupların ortalamalarında belirgin farklılaşmalar gözlemlenirken, söz konusu değişkenlerin tümü için, itibar ve sosyal-kültürel etmenlerin etkin olduğu gözlemlenmiştir (Sezen ve Durmuş, 2009). Başka bir araştırmada ise öğrencilerin içerisinde bulunduğu ekonomik durum, cinsiyet, yakınlık-uzaklık durumlarının tercihlerde etkisinin olmadığı bulgusu elde edilmiştir (Erol, Yergin ve Mercan, 2010). Gümüş, Türkel ve Şen (2014) tarafından yapılan çalışmada öğrencilerin üniversite tercihi yaparken hangi bilgi kaynaklarından yararlandıklarının tespit edilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bilgi toplamak amacıyla Kastamonu Üniversitesinde okuyan birinci sınıf öğrencisi 398 kişi üzerinde araştırma yapılmıştır. Ölçme aracı olarak anket kullanılmıştır. Anketin birinci kısmında öğrencilerin sosyal medyaya yönelik fikirleri, ikinci kısmında ise araştırmaya katılan kişilerin tercih döneminde sosyal medyayı kullanma durumları ve demografik özelliklerine göre sorular hazırlanmıştır. Öğrenciler tercih yaparken en fazla Blog sayfalarını takip ettikleri ikinci olarak da Facebook kullanıcısı oldukları belirlenmiştir. Öğrencilerin internete bağlanma durumlarına bakıldığında en çok evdeki bilgisayarlardan ve cep telefonlarından yararlandıkları tespit edilmiştir. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre öğrencilerin tercih döneminde en çok internetteki forum ve gruplardaki öğrenci yorumlarından yararlandıkları, bilgi kaynağı olarak da üniversitelerin web sayfaları ile Facebook sayfalarından da aynı oranda yararlandıkları ortaya çıkmıştır. Sezen ve Durmuş (2009) yaptıkları çalışmada üniversite tercihi yapma aşamasında olan bireylerin tercihlerinde etkili olan faktörleri belirlemeyi amaçlamışlardır. 2009-2010 yıllarında bilgi toplamak amacıyla lise son sınıfta okuyan 396 öğrenci üzerinde araştırmayı uygulamışlardır. Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak 22 sorudan oluşan bir anket uygulanmıştır. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre öğrencilerin eğitsel etmenler (laboratuar, kütüphane, öğretim üyesi sayısı vb.), destekleyici etmenler (burs, ikinci diploma, yerleşke konumu vb.), itibar etmenleri (üniversitenin bilinirliği, kuruluş yılı vb.), sosyal ve kültürel etmenler (yurtdışı eğitim, sosyal imkanlar vb.) ve coğrafi etmenler (ulaşım, konaklama vb.) şeklinde beş temel faktörü dikkate aldıkları tespit edilmiştir. Faktör puanları demografik değişkenlere göre kıyaslandığında, özellikle okul türü, cinsiyet ve gelir değişkenlerine göre belirgin farklılaşmalar gözlemlenmiştir. Erol, Yergin ve Mercan (2010) tarafından yapılan çalışmanın amacı Hakkari Üniversitesinde okuyan öğrencilerin bulundukları bölümü niçin tercih ettiklerini ve tercih sebeplerinin hangi şartlara dayandığını araştırmaktır. Çalışma 2010-2012 yılları arasında yapılmıştır. Araştırmada öğrencilerin içerisinde bulunduğu 263 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey ekonomik durum, cinsiyet, yakınlık uzaklık, gelir durumlarının tercihlerle olan ilişkileri belirlenecek şekilde veriler toplanmıştır. Hakkari Üniversitesinde Siyaset Bilimi, Kamu Yönetimi ve Din Kültürü ve Ahlak Bilgisi Öğretmenliği programlarında okuyan 170 öğrenciye anket uygulanmıştır. Çalışmada öğrencilerin cinsiyetinin, aile gelirinin, yakınlık uzaklık durumunun tercihlerde etkisinin olmadığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Hakkari ilinin uzak olması, sosyo-politik gerginliklerin yaşanması, buradaki üniversitenin tercih edilme oranını düşürdüğü yorumu yapılmıştır. Özyürek ve Kılıç-Atıcı (2002) yaptıkları çalışmada üniversiteye yeni başlamış bireylerin okudukları bölümü seçerken hangi etkenlerin belirleyici unsur olduğunu incelemiştir. Çalışmanın örneklemini Çukurova Üniversitesi farklı programlarının birinci sınıfına henüz başlamış 192 lisans öğrencisi oluşturmuştur. Araştırma sonucunda bölüm seçimini etkileyen etkenler olarak; yaşanılan bölgede gerçekleştirilen ekonomik faaliyetler, kişilerin ilgi alanları, kişinin yetenekleri, kişilik özellikleri, cinsiyet ve sosyal çevre olarak belirlenmiştir. Sonuç olarak öğrenciler en fazla ailelerden, okuldaki ve dershanedeki yaşantılarından, öğretmenlerinden, ÖSYM’nin tercih kılavuzundan, kitaplardan yararlandıkları ortaya konmuştur. Araştırmanın Amacı İnternet, günümüzde bilgi ve iletişim teknolojilerinin yaygınlaşmasıyla birlikte varılan son noktadır. Teknolojinin gelişimiyle birlikte İnternet ve sosyal ağlar hayatımıza hızlı bir şekilde entegre olmaya devam etmektedir. Bunun yanında sosyal ağları bireyler ne amaçla kullanmaktadır sorusu gündeme gelmektedir. Bireylerin ödev yapma ve araştırma amaçlı kullanmalarının yanı sıra başkalarıyla iletişim kurmak, ürün ya da hizmet tanıtımı yapmak, bir olayın duyurusunu yapmak gibi farklı amaçlarda bulunmaktadır. Bu bağlamda, bu çalışmanın temel amacı öğretmen adaylarının, üniversitelerin sosyal medya kullanmalarına yönelik görüşlerini ve kendi üniversite tercih sürecinde sosyal medyadan yararlanma durumlarını incelemektir. Öğrenciler üniversite tercih döneminde birçok kaynaklardan yararlanmaktadır. Doğru tercihi yapabilmek için birçok kaynaktan bilgilenmeleri ve doğru bilgiye ulaşmaları gerekmektedir. Öğrencilerin gelecekte icra edecekleri meslekleri seçerken sosyal medyanın olanaklarından nasıl ve ne oranda faydalandıkları önemlidir. Yöntem Bu çalışma nicel araştırma paradigmasına dayalı betimleyici araştırma yöntemlerinden tarama modeli ile desenlemiştir. Tarama modeli geçmişteki veya halen var olan bir durumu olduğu biçimiyle betimlemeyi amaçlayan bir araştırma yaklaşımıdır (Büyüköztürk vd., 2010). Araştırmanın evrenini 2017-2018 eğitim-öğretim yılında Isparta ilindeki Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Bilgisayar ve Öğretim Teknolojileri Öğretmenliği, Sınıf Öğretmenliği, İngilizce Öğretmenliği ve Fen Bilgisi Öğretmenliği lisans programlarında okumakta olan öğrenciler oluşturmaktadır. Elverişli örnekleme yoluyla 100 gönüllü öğrenciye ulaşılmıştır. Veriler anket formu kullanılarak toplanmıştır. Anket formunda katılımcıların demografik özelliklerinin belirlenmesine yönelik soruların yanında Gümüş, Türkel ve Şen (2014) tarafından geliştirilen üniversite tercih sürecinde yararlanılan bilgi kaynaklarını ve üniversite ve sosyal medya ilişkisine bakış açısına yönelik düşünceleri ortaya koyan ölçek kullanılmıştır. Bu ölçekte 21 madde bulunmaktadır. Katılımcılardan her bir madde için “Kesinlikle katılmıyorum”, “Kısmen Katılmıyorum”, “Fikrim yok”, “Kısmen Katılıyorum”, “Kesinlikle Katılıyorum” aralığındaki seçeneklerden birini işaretlemesi istenmektedir. Anketler öğrencilere dağıtılmadan önce öğrencilere araştırmanın amacı, form ve ölçeklerin nasıl cevaplandırılacağı hakkında gereken bilgi verilmiştir. Araştırmaya istekli olarak katılmayı sözlü olarak kabul ettiğini belirten öğrencilere anketler dağıtılmıştır. Toplanan veriler SPSS programına girilerek analiz edilmiştir. Bulgular Demografik verilerinin betimsel analizlerine göre; örneklem grubu 36’sı (%36) erkek; 64’ü (%64) kadın olmak üzere toplam 100 kişiden oluşmaktadır. Bunların 22’si (%22) bilgisayar ve öğretim teknolojileri, 23’ü (%23) sınıf, 27’si (%27) İngilizce, 28’i (%28) fen bilgisi öğretmenliği programında kayıtlıdır. Yaşları 20 ile 28 arasında değişmekte olup ortalama yaş 21,91 (Ss=1,36) olarak hesaplanmıştır. Katılımcıların üniversite tercih dönemlerinde en çok cep telefonu (%69) ve ev bilgisayarı (%66) üzerinden internet bağlandıkları ve yarısından fazlasının (%57) günde 1-2 saat internette zaman harcadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Aynı dönemde üyesi oldukları sosyal medya araçları ise Facebook (%71), Twitter (%43), MSN 264 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey (%11), sözlükler (%11), Bloglar (%6) ve Myspace (%2) şeklinde dağılım göstermektedir. İnternete benzer şekilde katılımcıların yaklaşık yarısının (%46) günde 1-2 saat bu mecralarda zaman harcamaktadırlar. Katılımcıların üniversite tercih sürecinde yararlandıkları bilgi kaynaklarına ait aritmetik ortalama ve standart sapma değerleri Tablo 2’de sunulmuştur. Buna göre en çok kullanılan ilk 3 bilgi kaynağı sırasıyla üniversitelerin web sayfaları, dershanelerin rehberlik servisleri ve konuyla ilgili uzman kişilerin ve kurumların web sayfalarıdır. Tablo 2. Üniversite tercih sürecinde yararlanılan bilgi kaynakları Bilgi kaynağı Üniversite tercih sürecinde üniversitelerin web sitelerinden yararlandım Üniversite tercih sürecinde dershanelerin rehberlik servislerinden yararlandım Üniversite tercih sürecinde uzman kişilerin ve kurumların web sitelerinden yararlandım Üniversite tercih sürecinde İnternetteki forum ve gruplardaki öğrenci yorumlarını okudum Üniversite tercih sürecinde üniversitelerin tanıtım broşürlerini okudum Üniversite tercih sürecinde üniversitelerin Youtube’da ki tanıtım videolarını izledim Üniversite tercih sürecinde üniversiteler adına oluşturulan Facebook sayfalarını ziyaret ettim Üniversite tercih sürecinde üniversitelerin Facebook’taki resmi sayfalarını ziyaret ettim Üniversite tercih sürecinde TV’lerdeki rehberlik programlarını izledim Üniversite tercih sürecinde üniversite tanıtım fuarlarını ziyaret ettim AO 3,20 3,14 3,03 2,92 2,83 2,72 2,68 2,54 2,32 2,06 SS 1,70 1,65 1,49 1,51 1,50 1,60 1,58 1,60 1,47 1,42 Katılımcıların üniversite tercih sürecinde üniversitelerin sosyal medyayı kullanmalarına yönelik düşüncelerine ait aritmetik ortalama ve standart sapma değerleri Tablo 3’de sunulmuştur. Buna göre, üniversitelerin sosyal medyada yer almalarının adaylar gözünde bilinirlik, yenilikçilik ve modern eğitim sunma noktasında olumlu etkisinin olduğunu düşünmektedirler. Ayrıca Facebook ve YouTube ortamlarındaki ilgili bilgi ve görsellerin önemli bir bilgi kaynağı olduğuna inanmaktadırlar. Katılımcıların bu maddelerden aldıkları puanların ortalamasından oluşan bileşke değişken üzerinde cinsiyet ve branş farklılıklarının olup olmadığı t-testi ve tek yönlü varyans analizi (ANOVA) testi ile sınanmıştır. Sonuç olarak katılımcıların bu düşüncelerinde erkekler (AO=3,28, SS=1,01) ve kadınlar (AO=3,01, SS=1,21) arasında anlamlı fark bulunamamıştır (t=1,17, p>0,05). Aynı şekilde bilgisayar ve öğretim teknolojileri öğretmenliği (AO=3,43, SS=0,86), sınıf öğretmenliği (AO=3,21, SS=1,13), İngilizce öğretmenliği (AO=3,07, SS=1,25) ve fen bilgisi öğretmenliği (AO=2,81, SS=1,20) öğrencileri arasında da anlamlı fark bulunamamıştır (F=1,31, p>0,05). Katılımcıların bileşke puanları ile yaşları arasında anlamlı ilişki yoktur (r=0,12, p>0,05). Tablo 3. Tercih sürecinde üniversitelerin sosyal medya kullanmalarına yönelik düşünceler Düşünce AO Üniversitenin sosyal medyada yer alması üniversitenin bilinirliğini artırmaktadır 3,43 Üniversitenin sosyal medyada yer alması üniversitenin yenilikçi olduğunu göstermektedir 3,26 Üniversitenin sosyal medyada yer alması üniversitenin modern eğitimini yansıtmaktadır 3,09 Facebook’ta açılan mezun, öğrenci, itiraf sayfaları önemli bir bilgi kaynağıdır 3,06 Üniversiteler hakkında Youtube’ta ki videolar önemli bir bilgi kaynağıdır 2,96 SS 1,48 1,40 1,37 1,52 1,35 Katılımcıların üniversite tercih sürecinde sosyal medyadan faydalanma yollarına ait betimsel istatistikler Tablo 4’de verilmiştir. Buna göre katılımcılar tercih edecekleri üniversitelerin en çok ulaşım, yerleşke olanakları ve sosyal imkanları hakkında sosyal medya üzerinden bilgi edindikleri görülmüştür. Katılımcıların bu maddelerden aldıkları puanların ortalamasından oluşan bileşke değişken üzerinde cinsiyet ve branş farklılıklarının olup olmadığı t-testi ve tek yönlü varyans analizi (ANOVA) testi ile sınanmıştır. Sonuç olarak katılımcıların bu düşüncelerinde erkekler (AO=3,09, SS=1,41) ve kadınlar (AO=2,95, SS=1,27) arasında anlamlı fark bulunamamıştır (t=0,50, p>0,05). Aynı şekilde bilgisayar ve öğretim teknolojileri öğretmenliği (AO=3,12, SS=1,30), sınıf öğretmenliği (AO=2,61, SS=1,36), İngilizce öğretmenliği (AO=3,32, SS=1,32) ve fen bilgisi öğretmenliği (AO=2,91, SS=1,27) öğrencileri arasında da anlamlı fark bulunamamıştır (F=1,34, p>0,05). Katılımcıların bileşke puanları ile yaşları arasında anlamlı ilişki yoktur (r=0,05, p>0,05). Tablo 3. Üniversite tercih döneminde sosyal medyadan faydalanma yolları Yol AO Tercih edeceğim üniversitenin ulaşım durumunu sosyal medyadan inceledim 3,17 Tercih edeceğim üniversitenin kampüs olanaklarını sosyal medyadan inceledim 3,16 Tercih edeceğim üniversitenin sosyal imkanlarını sosyal medyadan inceledim 3,09 Tercih edeceğim üniversitenin yurt dışı bağlantısını sosyal medyadan inceledim 2,80 Tercih edeceğim üniversitenin yurt olanaklarını sosyal medyadan inceledim 2,78 265 SS 1,60 1,50 1,56 1,58 1,58 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Sonuç Araştırmaya katılan öğretmen adaylarının üniversite tercih dönemlerinde çoğunlukla üniversitelerin web sitelerinden, rehberlik hizmetlerinden ve öğrenci forumlarından yararlanırken Facebook ve Youtube'dan orta düzeyde yararlandıkları görülmektedir. Üniversitelerin sosyal medyaya katılımının kurumsal kimliğini artıracağına ve yenilikçi bir imaj sağlayacağına inanmaktadırlar. Kendi tercih dönemlerinde üniversitelerin daha çok ulaşım, kampüs ve sosyal tesislerini sosyal medyadan incelediklerini beyan etmektedirler. Katılımcıların üniversitelerin tercih döneminde sosyal medya kullanmalarına yönelik düşünceleri ve kendilerinin bu bağlamda sosyal medyadan yararlanma yolları cinsiyet, branş ve yaştan bağımsız olduğu görülmektedir. Kaynaklar Aslan, P. (2011). Halkla ilişkilerde yeni eğilimler: Sosyal medya. (Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Çakmak, E. K., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, S. ve Demirel, F. (2011). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemleri (10. Baskı). Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Erol, A., Yergin, H., & Mercan, M. (2012). Üniversite öğrencilerinin üniversite tercihlerinin belirleyicileri: Hakkari örneği. Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Dergisi, 4(2), 1-10. Gümüş, N., Türkel, E., & Şen, G. (2015). Üniversite tercihinde öğrencilerin yararlandıkları bilgi kaynaklarının belirlenmesine yönelik Kastamonu Üniversitesi öğrencileri üzerinde bir araştırma. İstanbul Gelişim Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2(2), 43-67. Lewis, B. K. (2010). Social media and strategic communication: Attitudes and perceptions among college students. Public Relations Journal, 4(3). Sezen, B., & Durmuş, F. (2010). Orta öğretim kurumu öğrencilerinin yükseköğrenim kurum tercihleri üzerine bir çalışma. Akademik İncelemeler Dergisi, 5(1), 56-72. Statista, (2017). Social media usage worldwide. Retrieved from https://www.statista.com/study/12393/socialnetworks-statista-dossier Özyürek, R., & Kılıç-Atıcı, M. (2002). Üniversite öğrencilerinin meslek seçimi kararlarında kendilerine yardım eden kaynakların belirlenmesi. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 2(17), 33-42. 266 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Problems of Foreign Secondary School Students in Turkey: A Phenomenological Study Mustafa KOC Suleyman Demirel University Canan ERDOGAN Suleyman Demirel University Abstract: The purpose of this study is to reveal the problems faced by foreign students enrolled in the secondary schools in Turkey. A phenomenological design within the qualitative research context was employed to fulfill this goal. The study was carried out with foreign students studying in the 5th and 7th grades of a secondary school in the city center of Isparta. The data were collected through observations of these students during class meetings and breaks as well as interviews with their teachers. The collection qualitative data were analyzed descriptively through coding and thematizing. The findings were categorized and interpreted under these four main themes: financial incapability, language-based problems, lack of motivation, and negative student behaviors. Keywords: Foreign students, Refugees, Turkey, Problems, Secondary education Türkiye’deki Yabancı Uyruklu Ortaokul Öğrencilerinde Karşılaşılan Sorunlar: Bir Olgubilim Çalışması Özet: Bu çalışmanın amacı Türkiye’de ortaokul düzeyinde öğrenim görmekte olan yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin yaşadıkları sorunları ortaya koymaktır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda nitel araştırma desenlerinden olgubilim araştırması yapılmıştır. Çalışma Isparta ilindeki bir ortaokulun 5. ve 7. sınıfında okuyan yabancı öğrenciler ile yapılmıştır. Veriler ders ve teneffüslerde bu öğrencilerin gözlemlenmesi ve öğretmenleri ile görüşmeler yapılması yoluyla toplanmıştır. Toplanan nitel veriler kodlama ve temalandırma yoluyla betimsel olarak analiz edilmiştir. Elde edilen bulgular; maddi yetersizlikler, dil kaynaklı sorunlar, motivasyon eksikliği, olumsuz öğrenci davranışları başlıkları altında dört temada toplanmış ve yorumlanmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Yabancı uyruklu öğrenciler, Mülteciler, Türkiye, Sorunlar, Ortaokul eğitimi Giriş Çeşitli sebeplerden dolayı kişilerin bireysel ya da aileyle birlikte kendi istekleri ya da cebren geriye dönüş veya sürekli yerleşim hedefi güden coğrafik, toplumsal ve kültürel yer değiştirme hareketi göç olarak tanımlanmaktadır (Koçak ve Terzi, 2012; Sarıtaş, Şahin ve Çatalbaş; 2016). İnsanların taşınması için birkaç sebep vardır. Bunlar sınırlı olmamakla birlikte savaş, terör, yoksulluk, doğal afetler, nüfus problemleri, eğitim olanaklarındaki yetersizlikler, siyasi sorunlar gibi faktörler olup ekonomik, sosyal ve politik gruplara ayrılabilir (Kaştan, 2015). İki tür göç vardır. Zorunlu göç, yetkili otorite veya doğal zorlamadan kaynaklanır. Gönüllü olan göç, daha iyi koşullarda yaşama arzusundan kaynaklanmaktadır. Göç genellikle sorunlu bir süreçtir. Göçmenlerin neden ve nasıl yer değiştirdiklerinden bağımsız olarak, coğrafya, iklim ve kültürdeki değişimler nedeniyle fiziksel ve ruh sağlığı, iletişim kurma, yeniliklere uyum, yalnızlık, aidiyet hissi gibi konularda bazı problemler yaşanmaktadır. Göçmenlerin uyum süreçlerini açıklamaya çalışan birkaç teorik model bulunmaktadır. U-eğrisi modeli, çeşitli göçmenlere uygulanabilmesi açısından, uygulama sürecini açıklamak için kullanılan en yaygın teorik çerçevedir ve ampirik desteğe sahiptir (Oberg, 1960). Bu modele göre, uyum süreci dört aşamadan geçer. İlk olarak “balayı” aşamasında göçmenler yeni kültür ve yenilikler karşısında heyecanlı ve meraklıdır. Bu aşamada kültürel benzerliklere vurgu vardır. İkinci olarak “kriz” aşamasında farklı davranış ve değerlerle yüzleşme, karışıklık ve endişe sonucu yeni kültürün reddi yaşanır. Üçüncü olan “çift kültürlülük” aşamasında kültürel farklılıklar hakkında farkındalık ve anlayışın oluşması sonucunda özerklik, memnuniyet ve çift kültürlü kimlik gelişimi gözlenir. Son olarak “uyum” aşamasında yeni sosyal ve kültürel normların öğrenilmesi sonucunda rahatlık ve yeni kültüre saygı gerçekleşir. Mültecilik göç ile ilişkili bir kavram olup, kişinin ülkesinde kendini baskı altında hissedip farklı sebeplerden dolayı ülkesini terk etmesi ve başka bir ülkeye sığınma talebinde bulunup o ülkede yaşamaya başlaması olarak 267 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey tanımlanmaktadır. Birleşmiş Milletler Mülteci Yüksek Komiserliği kayıtlarına göre 2014 yılı dünya genelinde en yoğun mülteci hareketinin gözlemlendiği yıl olmuştur. Son 4 yılda savaşlardan kaçan kişilerin sayısı 4 kat artmıştır. 2014 verilerine göre mültecilerin %51’i çocuktur. Dünya genelindeki mültecilerin ve yerinden edilmiş kişilerin %86’sı gelişmekte olan ülkelerde yaşamaktadır. Son 5 yılda Türkiye de bu durumdan en çok etkilenen ülkeler arasındadır. Türkiye bu konuda açık kapı politikası uygulamaktadır (MEB, 2017). 2017 yılı için ikamet iznine sahip yabancıların sayısını gösteren Göç İdaresi Genel Müdürlüğü (GİGM) tarafından hazırlanan istatistiklere göre en çok göçmen Irak ve Suriye'den gelmektedir (GİGM, 2018). Benzer şekilde 2017 yılında Türkiye'ye yapılan düzensiz göçmenlerin de en sık göçler Suriye, Afganistan, Pakistan ve Irak'tan gelmektedir. Bu istatistikler mevcut göçün büyük çoğunluğunun, özellikle Suriye başta olmak üzere komşu ülkelerde devam eden savaşla ilgili olduğunu göstermektedir. Birleşmiş Milletler Mülteci Ajansı'nın (UNHCR) verilerine göre, dünya çapında 40 milyonu yerinden edilmiş, yirmi milyonu mülteci ve üç milyonu sığınmacı olan, yaklaşık olarak milyonlarca zorla yerinden edilmiş insan bulunmaktadır. Dünya çapındaki mültecilerin yarısından fazlası sırasıyla Suriye, Afganistan ve Güney Sudan'dan gelmektedir. Mültecileri en çok barındıran ülke Türkiye’dir (UNHCR, 20418). Ajansın verilerine göre dünyadaki Suriyeli mültecilerin sayısı yaklaşık 5,6 milyon civarında olup bunların %63’ü Türkiye’de yaşamaktadır. Türkiye jeopolitik konumu nedeniyle hem göç alan hem de göçmenlerin geçiş yolu üzerinde önemli bir konumdadır. Son yıllarda komşu ülke olan Suriye’de olan savaş Türkiye’ye olan göçleri önemli ölçüde arttırmıştır. Bu durum Türkiye’nin daha çok uluslararası mülteci ve sığınmacı sorunuyla karşılaşacağını göstermektedir. Bu durum sığınmacı çocukların eğitimi açısından önemlidir. Eğitimini yarıda bırakmış eğitime ihtiyacı olan çocukların eğitimi için özel çalışmalar başlatılmıştır. Bu plan öncelikle dil öğretimini kapsamaktadır. Yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin kayıtları yapıldıktan sonra bu okullarda görev yapan öğretmenlere kapsayıcı eğitim hakkında bilgi ve becerilerinin geliştirilmesi sağlanmıştır. Geçici eğitim merkezleri açılmıştır. Geçici eğitim merkezlerinde dil problemlerini çözmek için Türkçe dersleri verilmektedir. Geçici eğitim merkezlerinin genel olarak amacı kitlesel olarak ülkemize akın etmiş yabancı öğrencilerin, ülkelerinde yarım bırakmak zorunda kaldıkları eğitimlerine devam edebilmelerini sağlamaktır (Taştan ve Çelik, 2017). Sarıtaş, Şahin ve Çatalbaş (2016) tarafından 2015-2016 eğitim öğretim yılında yapılan araştırmada ilkokullarda yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerle karşılaşılan sorunlar araştırılmıştır. Çalışmada nitel araştırma deseni olan olgubilim (fenomenoloji) araştırması deseninden yararlanılmıştır. Yabancı öğrencilerle karşılaşılan sorunlar okul-aile iş birliği sorunları, dil sorunları, davranış sorunu, Milli Eğitim okul işbirliği sorunu ve okul sürecinde yaşanan sorunlar olarak belirtilmiştir. Bu sorunların çözümüne yönelik geliştirilen öneriler arasında ana sınıfı eğitimi, milli eğitimde özel birim oluşturma, tek okul-tek sınıf, oryantasyon programı ve dil eğitimi yer almaktadır. Paksoy, Paksoy ve Özçalıcı (2012) tarafından yapılan araştırmada Türkiye’de yüksek öğrenim gören yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin sorunları araştırılmıştır. Çalışmada GAP bölgesinde öğrenim gören yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin durumu ortaya çıkarılmak amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma Kilis, Gaziantep ve Diyarbakır illerinde yürütülmüştür. Öğrencilerin başarılarına Türkçeyi Türkiye’de veya kendi ülkelerinde öğrenmenin ve Türkiye’de başka öğrenim gören tanıdıklarının olup olmamasının etki edip etmediği araştırılmıştır. Çalışma sonuçlarına göre Türkiye’de öğrenim gören tanıdıklarının olması öğrencilerin başarısına olumlu etki etmektedir. Seymen ve Tok (2015) tarafından yapılan araştırmada ileri düzey yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin zorlandıkları kültürel dil unsurlarının tespiti ve sınıflandırılması incelenmiştir. Bu çalışmada, nitel araştırma yaklaşımlarından durum çalışması yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Veri toplama aracı olarak öğrenci kişisel bilgi formu, yapılandırılmış öğrenci günlüğü ve görüşme kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın sonucunda yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin anlamakta güçlük çektikleri dil yapısının başında deyimler gelmektedir. Kıroğlu, Kesten ve Elma (2010) tarafından 2008-2009 eğitim öğretim yılında yapılan araştırmada Türkiye’deki bir üniversitenin eğitim fakültesinde öğrenim gören yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin sosyo-kültürel ve ekonomik anlamda yaşadıkları sorunları incelenmiştir. Bu araştırmada nitel araştırma deseni olan olgubilim (fenomonoloji) ve veri toplama aracı olarak yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme tekniği kullanılmıştır. Yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin sosyo-kültürel ve ekonomik sorunlarına ilişkin görüşlerinin analizinde nitel veri analiz tekniklerinden betimsel analiz yaklaşımı kullanılmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin kendi kültürleriyle Türk kültürünün benzerlik göstermesi nedeniyle Türkiye’de önyargı ya da dışlanma ile karşılaşmadıkları belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca, yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin ekonomik kaynaklarının sadece aileleri olduğu ve aileleri tarafından gönderilen paranın yetersiz kaldığı görülmüştür. Yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin tamamına yakınının ise ev özlemi çektikleri ve ailelerini, arkadaşlarını ve memleketlerini özledikleri tespit edilmiştir. Kılıçlar, Sarı ve Seçilmiş (2012) tarafından yapılan araştırmada Türk dünyasından gelen öğrencilerin yaşadıkları sorunların akademik başarıya etkisi incelenmiştir. Veri toplamak için Michigan Yabancı Öğrenci Problem Envanterinden yararlanarak geliştirilmiş ölçek, akademik başarı ölçütü olarak da öğrencilerin genel not ortalaması kullanılmıştır. Yapılan araştırmanın sonucunda dil ile ilgili uyum sorunlarıyla akademik başarı 268 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey arasında düşük düzeyde ters yönlü bir ilişki tespit edilmiştir. Bununla birlikte mali sorunlar, sosyo-kültürel sorunlar, oryantasyon sorunları ve kişisel sorunlar gibi uyum sorunları ile akademik başarı arasında bir ilişkinin olmadığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Araştırmanın Amacı Coğrafi konumu ve misafirperver tutumu bakımından Türkiye kendi ülkelerindeki sorunlar nedeniyle göç etmek zorunda kalanlar için cazip bir ülke durumundadır. Son on yıl içinde bu ülkeye yapılan göçmen akımı oldukça yüksektir. Örneğin, devam etmekte olan savaştan dolayı ülkelerini terk eden Suriyelilerin %60’tan fazlası Türkiye’dedir. Kayıtlı mülteci sayısı 3,5 milyonu aşmıştır. Bunların da yaklaşık yarısı 18 yaş altında okul çağındaki çocuklardan oluşmaktadır. Eylül 2018 itibariyle 600 binden fazla öğrenci Türkiye genelinde eğitimöğretime başlamış bulunmaktadır. Her ne kadar Türkiye bu kitlenin eğitimi için hızlı bir şekilde politika ve uygulamalar geliştirse de başka bir yerde yaşama zorunluluğunun getirdiği duygusal ve davranışsal sorunlar eğitim ve okula hayatına yansımaktadır. Bu bağlamda göçmenlerin okullarda yaşadığı zorlukların tespit edilip çözülmeye çalışılması önem arz etmektedir. Dolayısıyla, bu çalışmanın amacı Türkiye’de ortaokul düzeyinde öğrenim görmekte olan yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin yaşadıkları sorunları ortaya koymaktır. Yöntem Bu araştırmada nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden biri olan olgubilim (fenomonoloji) deseni kullanılmıştır. Veriler gözlem ve görüşme yoluyla toplanmıştır. Çalışma Isparta merkezindeki bir devlet ortaokulunda gerçekleştirilmiştir. Olgubilim, bireylerin bir fenomen (olay, program, duygu vb.) ile ilgili görüş, tutum veya algılarını yaşadıkları deneyimlerle keşfetmeye çalışır (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Böyle bir yaklaşımın mültecilerin yurtdışında eğitim almaları için yaşadıkları deneyimleri incelemek için uygun olduğuna karar verilmiştir. Araştırma 2017-2018 eğitim-öğretim yılı içerisinde yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin bulunduğu 7-B ve 5-B şubeleri öğrencileri ve öğretmenleri ile birlikte yürütülmüştür. Çalışma toplam 15 yabancı uyruklu öğrenci ile beraber gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmanın çalışma grubu amaçlı örnekleme yöntemlerinden biri olan benzeşik örnekleme yöntemi kullanılarak oluşturulmuştur. Böylece yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin farklı yaş ve cinsiyetlerine göre hızlıca ulaşıp gönüllü olanlar ile görüşüp kendini tanıtmaları sağlanmıştır. Daha sonra gözlem yoluyla öğrencilerin karşılaştıkları sorunlar belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Okulda öğretmenlerle görüşme yapılıp yabancı uyruklu öğrenciler ve aileleri ile karşılaştıkları sorunlar belirlenmiştir. Araştırmada kullanılacak olan veri toplama aracı araştırmacı tarafından belirlenmiştir. Araştırmada yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin karşılaştığı problemleri belirlemek için gözlem ve görüşme yöntemi yer almaktadır. Yabancı uyrukların karşılaştığı sorunlar yapılan gözlem ve öğretmenlerle yapılan görüşmelerle belirlenmiştir. Gözlem ders esnasında ve teneffüs aralarında yapılmıştır. Gözlem haftada bir gün olarak Çarşamba günleri bilişim teknolojileri dersinde yapılmıştır. Gözlemci sınıfın en arkasında oturup izleyerek gözlemini gerçekleştirmiştir. Yapılan gözlemde öğrencilerin derse karşı tutumları, öğretmene karşı davranışları, arkadaşlarıyla ilişkileri incelenmiştir. Notlar alınarak yapılan gözlem daha sonra bilgisayar ortamına aktarılmıştır. Diğer derslerde ki davranışlarını öğrenmek amacıyla okuldaki matematik, beden eğitimi, müzik ve sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleriyle görüşülmüştür. Görüşmede öğrencilerin yetenekleri ve özellikleri, ailelerinin özellikleri, yaşadıkları ev hakkında genel bilgiler alınmıştır. Görüşmelerde kullanılan çerçeve sorular aşağıdaki gibidir: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerde karşılaştığınız problemler nelerdir? Yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin aile yapıları hakkında ne düşünüyorsunuz? Yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin derse karşı tutumları nasıl? Yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin müzik, resim veya beden eğitimi dersinde yetenekleri var mı? Yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin yaşadığı ev ortamları hakkında bilgi verir misiniz? Yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerde herhangi bir disiplin problemi ile karşılaşıyor musunuz? Bulgular Gözlem ve görüşmeler yapıldıktan sonra bir kağıda geçirilip düzenlenip okundu. Daha sonra betimsel nitel veri analizi ile yapılan gözlem ve görüşmeler kodlandı. Bu kodların benzerliklerinden yola çıkarak bulgular 4 tema altında özetlendi. 269 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Birinci tema maddi yetersizlikler olarak adlandırılmıştır. Bu tema altında öğrenciler yabancı uyruklu oldukları için ailelerinin iş bulmakta zorlanmaları konusu öne çıkmıştır. Maddi durumları iyi olmaması öğrencilerin okulda bazı sorunlarla karşılaşmasına sebep olmaktadır. Yapılan gözlem ve görüşmede yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin çoğunda okul kıyafeti olmadığı için giymedikleri görülmüştür. Okula serbest kıyafetle gelmektedirler. Diğer bir gözlem ise yapılan ev ziyaretlerinde evlerinde eşya olmadığı, olan eşyalarında çok eski olduğu görülmüştür. Fizyolojik ihtiyaçlarını bile karşılayamayacak durumda olanlara okuldaki öğretmenler ya da komşuları yardım etmektedir. Öğretmenlerin öncelikli amacı onların fizyolojik ihtiyaçlarını karşılamaktır. İkinci temada dil kaynaklı sorunlar yer almaktadır. Yabancı uyruklu öğrenciler Türkçe bilmediği için okulda bazı sorunlarla karşılaşmaktadır. Hem öğretmenleriyle hem arkadaşlarıyla anlaşma konusunda problem yaşıyorlar. Yapılan gözlemlerde Türkçe bilmedikleri için sınav kağıdını anlamayıp yapamadıkalrı ortaya çıkmıştır. Yapılan görüşmelerde ise yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin Türkçe bilmedikleri için okula uyum sağlayamadıkları sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Dil sorunu yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin diğer öğrencilerle etkileşim kurmasını da engellemektedir. Derse olan ilgilerini düşürmektedir. Yapılan gözlemde öğretmen iki tane soru oluşturun dediği zaman öğrencilerin anlamadığı ve derse ilgisiz kaldığı görülmüştür. Yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin karşılaştığı motivasyon eksikliği üçüncü temada yer almıştır. Derse karşı ilgi duymadıkları gözlemlenmiştir. Yapılan gözlemlerde derste farklı şeylerle ilgilendikleri (resim boyama, kendi aralarında konuşma) görülmüştür. Yapılan görüşmelerde ise bir öğretmen şu şekilde belirtmiştir: “Derse karşı öğrenciler ilgisiz. Derste farklı şeylerle ilgileniyorlar. Dersin düzenini bozuyorlar.” Yabancı uyruklu öğrenciler derste farklı şeylerle ilgilendikleri için diğer öğrencilerin de dikkati dağılmakta ve dersi dinlemeleri güçleşmektedir. Son tema altında olumsuz öğrenci davranışları yer almaktadır. Okulun kurallarını bilmedikleri ve genelde kurallara uymadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Yapılan gözlemlerde yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin derse geç geldikleri görülmüştür. Genel olarak yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerde okula geç kalma problemi vardır. Diğer bir gözlemde ise yabancı uyruklu öğrencinin evde bakacak kişi olmadığı için okula küçük kardeşini getirdiği görülmüştür. Yabancı uyruklu öğrenciler derse kitap defter gibi araçlarını getirmemektedir. Yapılan görüşmede bir öğretmen: “İlk zamanlarda çok zorlandık okula bıçak getiren bile vardı. Ama şu anda böyle bir problem yok” şeklinde belirtmiştir. Sonuç olarak yabancı uyruklu öğrenciler okul kültürüne ve kurallarına yabancı kalmaktadır. Sonuç Öğretmenlerle yapılan görüşmeler ve yapılan gözlemler sonucunda 15 tane yabancı uyruklu öğrenci olduğu belirlenmiştir. Yapılan araştırmada yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerde karşılaşılan en önemli sorunlar maddi yetersizlikler, olumsuz okul davranışları, motivasyon eksikliği ve dil sorunu olarak belirlenmiştir. En önemli sorunun dil sorunu olduğunu belirten öğretmenler öğrencilerle Türkçe bilmedikleri için anlaşamadıklarını ifade etmişlerdir. Diğer bir problem ise yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin aileleri de Türkçe bilmediği için okul-aile iş birliği konusunda sorunlar yaşamışlardır. Öğretmenler yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin evlerine yaptıkları ev ziyaretlerinde onlar için en önemli problemin fizyolojik ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. Öğretmenler öğrencilere bu konu da yardımcı olmaya çalışmışlardır. Dil problemini ise okulda yabancı dil bilen öğrencilerden yararlanarak çeviri sayesinde anlaşmaya çalışmışlardır. Türkiye uzun yıllardır göç alan bir ülke olmasına rağmen, özellikle komşu ülke Suriye’de yaşanan savaş nedeniyle yoğun bir şekilde göç almıştır. Bunun sonucunda çok fazla Suriyeli öğrenci okullarda eğitim almaya başlamıştır. Tespit edilen sorunlar düzenli ve başarılı bir öğretim ve öğrenim ortamını oluşturmayı ve sürdürmeyi engelleyecek niteliktedir. Karşılaşılan sorunları çözmek için yada en aza indirgemek için yabancı uyruklu öğrencilere ve ailelerine okullarda seminerler düzenlenip Türk eğitim sistemi hakkında bilgi verilebilir. Türk öğrenciler ve yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin kaynaşması için okullarda hepsinin katılabileceği etkinlikler düzenlenebilir. Çeviri ve telaffuz yazılımları konuşma ve yazma için kullanılabilir. Türk öğrenciler model olma ve empati gösterme için bilgilendirilebilir. Destekleyici ve ödüllendirici politikalar ve aktiviteler uygulanabilir. Okullar ekstra ders veya kurslar sunabilir. Kaynaklar Göç İdaresi Genel Müdürlüğü (GİGM), (2018). Göç istatistikleri. http://www.goc.gov.tr/icerik/gocistatistikleri_363_378 Kaştan, Y. (2015). Türkiye’de göç yaşamış çocukların eğitim sürecinde karşılaşılan problemler. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 2(4), 216-229. 270 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Kılıçlar, A., Sarı, Y., & Seçilmiş C. (2012). Türk dünyasından gelen öğrencilerin yaşadıkları sorunların akademik başarılarına etkisi: Turizm öğrencileri örneği. Bilig: Türk Dünyası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 61, 157-172. Kıroğlu, K., Kesten, A., & Elma, C. (2010). Türkiye’de öğrenim gören yabancı uyruklu lisans öğrencilerinin sosyo-kültürel ve ekonomik sorunları. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 6(2), 26-39. Koçak, Y., & Terzi, E. (2012). Türkiye’de göç olgusu, göç edenlerin kentlere olan etkileri ve çözüm önerileri. Kafkas Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 3(3), 163-184. Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. John Wiley & Sons. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (MEB), (2017). Sınıfında yabancı öğrenci bulunan öğretmenler için el kitabı. Ankara: Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları. Oberg, K. (1960). Culture shock: Adjustment to new cultural environment. Practical Anthropologist, 7, 177-182. Paksoy, H. M., Paksoy, S., & Özçalıcı, M. (2014). Türkiye’de yüksek öğrenim gören yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin sosyal sorunları. Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 2(2), 85-94. Sarıtaş, E., Şahin, Ü., & Çatalbaş, G. (2016). İlkokullarda yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerle karşılaşılan sorunlar. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 25(1), 208-229. Seymen, H., & Tok, M. (2015). İleri düzey yabancı uyruklu öğrencilerin zorlandıkları kültürel dil unsurlarının tespiti ve sınıflandırılması. Uluslararası Türkçe Edebiyat Kültür Eğitim Dergisi, 4(3), 1188-1212. Taştan, C., & Çelik, Z. (2017). Türkiye’de Suriyeli çocukların eğitimi: Güçlükler ve öneriler. Ankara: EğitimBir-Sen Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi. UNHCR, (2018). Figures at a glance. Retrieved from https://www.unhcr.org/figures-at-a-glance.html 271 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Review of the Argumentation Oriented Studies in Conducted in Turkey between 2007 and 2017 for Science Teaching of Primary School Students Kevser BOZKURT Necmettin Erbakan University Kemal IZCI Necmettin Erbakan University Abstract: The aim of the study is to review argumentation related studies published between 2007 and 2017 and conducted on Turkish primary school students’ science learning based on some predefined categories. By doing this, we think to provide a summary of findings for the related studies and show gaps in this area to provide suggestions for the related stakeholders. For this aim, we reviewed 43 studies in which 22 of them were master and doctoral thesis, 20 of them were journal articles and one of them was conference presentation. All of the studies were used argumentation as a way to support primary level students’ learning outcomes. During the analysis of the studies, descriptive analysis was used to provide a summary of the studies, and then thematic analysis was used to displayed information about the year, type, topic, aim, method, sampling, context, results and suggestions of the analyzed studies. The results of the analysis showed that studies mostly published during 2014 and 2016 years, mostly focused on 8th grade students, experimental design frequently preferred, and looked for the impact of argumentation on students’ academic achievement, attitudes, science process skills and nature of science conceptions. In general, the findings of the analyzed studies showed that argumentation approach increases students’ academic achievements, class participation and socialization of students. These studies also suggested conduction of more longitudinal studies and providing argumentation oriented professional development opportunities for teachers. Keywords: Argumentation, Learning by doing and writing, Scientific discussion 2007-2017 Yılları Arasında Türkiye Kapsamında İlköğretim Öğrencilerine Yönelik Fen Eğitiminde Argümantasyon Odaklı Yapılan Çalışmaların Değerlendirilmesi Özet: Bu araştırmanın amacı Türkiye kapsamında gerçekleştirilen ve ilköğretim öğrencilerinin fen eğitiminde argümantasyon yaklaşımını kullanan 2007-2017 yılları arasında yayınlanmış olan akademik çalışmaları farklı araştırma soruları ışığında incelemektir. Bu sayede, araştırmaların ortaya koydukları bulguların ve eksik kalan noktaların belirlenmesi ve ulaşılan sonuçlar temelinde ilgili paydaşlara tavsiyelerde bulunulması amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaçlar doğrultusunda 2007-2017 yılları arasında Türkiye’de gerçekleştirilen, örneklemini ilköğretim öğrencilerinden alan fen eğitiminde argümantasyon yaklaşımını kullanan erişime açık 22 tez, 20 makale ve 1 bildiri olmak üzere 43 çalışma farklı veri tabanlarından elde edilerek incelenmiştir. Çalışmaların incelenmesinde içerik analizi yöntemlerinden öncelikle betimsel içerik analizi kullanılarak genel bir özetleme yapılmış, daha sonra tematik içerik analizi (meta sentez) yapılarak çalışmalar yıl, tür, konu, amaç, yöntem, örneklem, bağlam, boylam, sonuç ve öneri yönleriyle incelenmiştir. Bulgulara bakıldığında; çalışmaların 2014 ve 2016 yıllarında yoğunlaştığı; daha çok 8. sınıf öğrencileri ile araştırma yapıldığı; deneysel desenlerin daha çok tercih edildiği, akademik başarı, tutum, bilimsel süreç becerileri ve bilimin doğası anlayışlarına etkisinin gibi yapıların yoğun çalışıldığı görülmüştür. Genel olarak argümantasyon odaklı seçilen stratejilerin öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına olumlu katkı sağladığı, sınıf içi etkileşimi artırdığı, sosyalleşmeyi ve buna bağlı becerileri geliştirdiği belirlenmiştir. Çalışmalarda diğer araştırmacılar için daha uzun süreli araştırmalar yapılması gerektiğinin ve öğretmenlere hizmet içi eğitimler verilmesinin önerildiği görülmüştür. Anahtar Kelimeler: Argümantasyon, Yaparak yazarak bilim öğrenme, Bilimsel tartışma Giriş Fen bilimleri, doğası gereği bireylerin yaşamlarıyla sürekli iç içe olan ve günlük hayatta en çok uygulama alanı bulan yaşamın kendisini açıklamaya çalışan bir disiplindir. Sürekli bir uygulama alanı bulabilmesi, günlük hayatta karşılaşılan problemlerin çözümünde başvurulması, fen bilimlerini okul içinde bir ders olmaktan çıkarıp yaşamın bir parçası haline getirmektedir. Bundan dolayı ülkemizdeki son üç fen öğretim programlarının vizyonu 272 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey da bireysel farklılıkları ne olursa olsun fen okuryazarı bireyler yetiştirmek olarak belirlenmiştir (Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı [MEB] 2006; 2013; 2017). Fen okuryazarı bireyler; bilimsel süreç becerilerine sahip, fen bilimlerine karşı olumlu tutum gösteren, çevreye karşı duyarlı, toplumsal sorunlarda çözüme katkı konusunda sorumluluk hisseden, işbirliğine açık, araştırıcı, sorgulayıcı, bilginin değişebileceğini bilen ve bilimsel çalışmaları takdir eden bireyler olarak tarif edilmektedir(MEB, 2013). Fen okuryazarı bireyler yetiştirmek için hazırlanan öğretim programlarını tarihsel sıralama ile incelediğimizde fen öğretmede temele alınan strateji yapılandırıcı yaklaşımdır. Son üç programda da yapılandırıcı yaklaşım öğretmenlere önerilirken programlarda adı geçen öğretim yöntemlerinde vurgu ve öne çıkarma anlamında bir değişim söz konusudur. MEB (2006) Fen öğretim programında öğrenci merkezli, küçük grup tartışmaları, drama, işbirliğine dayalı öğrenme, okul gezisi yöntem ve teknikleri öğrenci merkezli yöntem ve teknikler olarak gösterilmiştir. Öğretmenin rolü rehberlik eden, fırsat veren, teşvik eden, özenilen model insan olarak tanımlanmıştır. MEB’in (2013) fen bilimleri programına baktığımızda öğretmenlere problem-temelli, projetabanlı, işbirliğine dayalı öğrenme ve argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme etkili öğretim yöntemleri olarak önerilmiştir. Araştıran sorgulayan bireylerin tanımı yapılırken keşfetme ve deney kalıpları yeterli görülmemiş açıklama ve argüman oluşturma becerileri de eklenmiştir. MEB’in (2017) fen bilimleri programını incelediğimizde araştıran sorgulayan bireylere vurgu yapılırken öğrenme süreci keşfetme, sorgulama, argüman oluşturma ve ürün tasarlamayı kapsamaktadır. Dikkat edilirse fen öğretim programları gittikçe daha çok öğrenci merkezli stratejileri benimsemekte, öğrencileri öğrenme sürecine daha aktif katmanın yollarını aramakta, öğrenciyi kendi öğrenmesinin sorumluluğunu almaya zorlamakta, düşünmesini, eleştirmesini, reddetmesini, karar vermesini, ifade etmesini, sorgulamasını, tartışmasını, problem çözmesini istemektedir. Fen okuryazarlığının temelinde var olan araştırma sorgulama becerilerini öğrencilere aşılayabilmek için ortaya atılan ve son yıllarda oldukça geniş kabul gören öğretim yaklaşımlarından biri de argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmedir. Argümantasyon tartışma kökünden gelmekle birlikte Türkiye’de önceleri yaparak yazarak bilim öğrenme, bilimsel tartışma adı verilmiş ve son zamanlarda genel olarak argümantasyon veya argümantasyontabanlı bilim öğrenme olarak yer bulmuştur. Tartışma ortamında kullandığımız söylemler argüman iken; argümanlar etrafında yürütülen tartışma süreci argümantasyondur. Argümantasyon sürecinde öğrenciler; argüman oluşturur, oluşturdukları argümanları gerekçelendirir ve bağlantılar inşa ederler (Akçay, 2017). Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımıyla ilgili temel esasları 1958 yılında Toulmin ortaya koymuştur. Toulmin’e göre tartışma;  Sosyal bir anlam oluşturma çabasıdır, eleştirel akıl yürütmeyi temele alır.  Etkileşimli ve dinamik bir süreçtir, iddialar değişebilir ve sürekli yeni argümanlar üretilir.  Desteklenen iddialar bütünüdür. Neden-sonuç ilişkisinin ötesinde, iddia, veri, garanti, reddeden, destek, niteleyen öğeleri çerçevesinde birden fazla doğruya ulaşılabilmeyi vurgular.  Düşünceleri sürekli olarak teste tabi tutar. İddialar verilerle sürekli geriye dönük olarak test edilir. Akıl yürütme süreci devamlı kılar.  Tartışmanın özellikleri tartışma ortamına göre şekillenir. Veri, iddia ve garantiler bağlama göre değişebilir. Tartışmayı yürüten kişilerin bilgi ve becerilerinden etkilenir.  Her tartışma özel bir alanda incelenir. Hukuk, tıp veya iş tartışmaları aynı şekilde gerçekleşmez (Aldağ, 2006). Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmede yaklaşımında öğrencilerin bir olay karşısında bilimsel verilere dayalı bir iddia üretmeleri, iddiaları için önceki bilgilerini kullanarak veri ve destekler bulmaları, olayı gözlemleyerek kendi tahminleri ile karşılaştırmaları beklenebilir. Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmenin özü öğrencilerin iddialarını geriye dönük verileri ile yoklayıp süreç boyunca test etmesidir. Bu düşünme biçimi eğitim sisteminde her zaman hedeflenen bilimsel düşünmedir. Ayrıca bugün eğitim sistemimizde kabul gören yapılandırıcı yaklaşımda da benimsenen öğrencinin zihninde var olan bilgilerini yeni durumlarla sürekli karşılaştırarak, sorgulaması ve yapılandırmasıdır. Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmenin farklı öğeleri bulunmaktadır. Temele alınan öğeler; iddia, veri ve gerekçe olmakla birlikte destek, sınırlayıcı ve çürütmeler de yardımcı öğelerdir. Bir tartışma, bir olay ya da olgu karşısında iddia ileri sürülmesiyle başlar. İddiayı ispatlamak için önceden bilinen bilimsel veriler iddia ile ilişkilendirilerek gerekçe (çünkü cümleleri) olarak sunulur. Bu iddiayı yıkmak için tartışmadaki diğer bireylerin de başka veri ve destekleri ileri sürmesi gerekir. Toulmin (1958) argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımında iddiayı ispatlamaktan ziyade süreç içinde argümanların kullanılması ile elde edilen yönteme vurgu vardır. Toulmin 2003 yılında bir argümanın yapısındaki öğeleri şu şekilde belirtmiştir.    Veri (Data): Sahip olduğumuz bilgi ve görüşler. İddia (Claim): bir düşünce veya olay hakkında öne sürülen görüştür. Gerekçe (Warrant): Veri ve iddia arasındaki bağlantıyı verir. Çünkü, bundan dolayı…. 273 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey    Destekleyiciler (Backings): Bir gerekçenin gücünü artıran temel varsayımlar.. Niteleyiciler (Qualifiers): iddianın sınırlarını çizer ve sağlamlaştırır. Kesinlikle, imkansız, şu şartlar altında… Çürütme: iddiaların geçerli olamayacağı durumları belirtir. (Toulmin, 2003 akt Aktamış ve Hiğde, 2015) Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmede araştırmacılar tasarlanan farklı stratejiler ile öğretim ortamlarını zenginleştirmeye çalışmışlardır. Bunlar; ifadeler tablosu, kavram haritası, öğrenciler tarafından yazılan bir deneyin raporu, karikatürlerle yarışan teoriler, hikayelerle yarışan teoriler, kanıt ve fikirlerle yarışan teoriler, bir argümanı yapılandırma, tahmin et-gözle-açıkla ve deney tasarlama gibi etkinlikleri içermektedir. Bilimsel tartışma ortamını oluşturmak için uygulanabilecek bu stratejilerin tümünde, öğrencilerin meraklı olmasını, öğrenmelerini gözden geçirmelerini, karşı fikirler üretmeleri, verileri yorumlayıp analiz edebilmelerini ve farklı fikirlerin oluşmasını sağlayan bir yapı olduğu ortadadır (Çınar, 2013). Aktamış ve Hiğde’nin (2015)önerdikleri Türkçe argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımında dünyada önerilen birçok argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının zayıf yönlerine işaret etmişler ve argümanların hem içerik hem de yapısal olarak sağlamlığına odaklanmışlardır. Bu modelde argümanların modeldeki fonksiyonuna, gerekçelerin ilişkisine ve bilimsel geçerliğine vurgu vardır. Önerdikleri modelde iddia, veri, çürütme, destekleyici ve akıl yürütme öğeleri vardır. Toulmin’ın (1958) modelindeki niteleyici ve gerekçe kaldırılmış, akıl yürütme eklenmiştir. Buna göre modelde iddiaların kanıtlanması ve çürütülmesinde veri, destekleyici ve çürütmeler kullanılırken ilişkiler akıl yürütme ile ortaya çıkarılabilir. Türkiye’de bugüne kadar argümantasyon üzerine yapılan araştırmalar çeşitli değişkenler üzerinden bu yaklaşımın kullanılabilirliğini ve etkililiğini incelemişlerdir. Araştırmaların ülkemizde çok eski bir geçmişi olmamakla birlikte oldukça etkili ve yoğun çalışıldığı da görülmektedir. Bundan sonra da bu alanda çalışmak yapmak isteyen araştırmacılara yapılan çalışmaların yoğunlaştığı yönleri ve alanda daha fazla çalışmaya ihtiyaç duyulan noktaları ve karşılaşılan sorunları göstermek gerekliliği doğmuştur. Bu araştırmada, Türkiye’de fen eğitiminde argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme modelini odak noktası olarak belirleyen, ilköğretim öğrencileri ile çalışılan 2007-2017 yılları arasında yapılan çalışmaları farklı araştırma soruları üzerinden inceleyip değerlendirmek, araştırmaların geldiği noktayı ortaya koyup bundan sonra yapılacak çalışmalara ışık tutmak amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaçla şu alt araştırma sorularına yanıt aranmıştır. Fen eğitiminde argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını konu alan araştırmaların yıllara göre dağılımı nasıldır? 2. Araştırmaların türlerine göre dağılışı nedir? 3. Araştırmaların örneklem büyüklüğü nasıldır? 4. Araştırmalar hangi bağlamlarda gerçekleştirilmiştir? 5. Araştırmalar hangi yöntem ve desenlerle yürütülmüştür? 6. Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme ile hangi değişkenlerin ilişkisi incelenmiştir? 7. Araştırmaların boylamsal değişimi nasıldır? 8. Araştırmalarda neler amaçlanmıştır? 9. Araştırma sonuçlarında nelere ulaşılmıştır? 10. Araştırmacılar diğer araştırmacılar ve fen bilimleri öğretimi için neler önermişlerdir? 1. Yöntem Türkiye’de ilköğretim fen eğitiminde argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme modeli üzerine yapılan çalışmaların son on yılda geldiği yeri; amaç, yöntem, bağlam, boylam, örneklem, çalışma grubu, sonuçlar ve önerilerin ortaya konması amacıyla gerçekleştirilen bu çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden iki farklı içerik analizi yöntemi birlikte kullanılmıştır. İçerik analizi kodlama ve temalar çerçevesinde yapılan yorumlama ve çıkarımda bulunma olarak özetlenebilir (Büyüköztürk, Kılıç Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz ve Demirel, 2017). Bu çalışmada öncelikle Türkiye’de son yıllarda argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme üzerine yapılan çalışmaların yüzeysel özellikleri betimsel içerik analizi yapılarak özetlenmiş, daha sonra meta-sentez (tematik içerik analizi) yöntemi ile çalışmalar eleştirel bir bakış açısıyla yorumlanmıştır. Araştırmada 2007-2017 yılları arasında Türkiye’de yapılan, fen eğitiminde argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmeyi merkeze alan, çalışma grubunu/örneklemini tamamen ya da kısmen ilköğretim öğrencilerinin oluşturduğu, ilk elden veri sağlayan, tamamına erişilebilir makale, tez ve bildiriler taranarak araştırma problemlerine yanıt aranmıştır. 274 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Verilerin Toplanması Araştırmada Google akademik ve ulusal tez merkezinden “Argümantasyon, yaparak yazarak bilim öğrenme (YYBÖ), Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme (ATBÖ), bilimsel tartışma, tartışmacı yazma” anahtar kelimeleri ile ulaşılan çalışmalardan amaca uygun olanlar çalışmaya dahil edilmiş, örneklemini sadece öğretmen veya öğretmen adayları oluşturan çalışmalar dahil edilmemiştir. Böylece 22 tez, 20 makale ve 1 bildiri araştırmanın çalışma grubunu oluşturmuştur. Analiz Dokümanların araştırma sorularına göre incelenmesiyle elde edilen veriler frekans ve yüzde değerleriyle verilmiştir. Çalışmaya dâhil edilen araştırmalara birer kod verilmiş ve bu kodlar verilerin analizlerinde kullanılmıştır. İncelenen araştırmalar ve kodları aşağıdaki tabloda verilmiştir (Tablo 1). Kodu 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 Türü Makale Makale Makale Tez (YL) Tez (YL) Tez (YL) Tez(D) Makale Makale Tez (YL) Tez (YL) Makale Makale Tez (YL) Makale Makale Makale Makale Tez (YL) Tez (YL) Makale Tez (YL) Makale Makale Tez (D) Tez (YL) Tez (YL) Tez (YL) Tez (D) Makale Makale Tez (YL) Makale Tez (YL) Tez (D) Bildiri Tez (YL) Tez (YL) Makale Tez (YL) Tez (D) Makale Makale Tablo 1. Çalışmaya dahil edilen araştırmalar ve verilen kodlar Yılı Çalışmalar 2016 Acar, Bilgin, Karaçam ve Tola (2016) 2014 Akçay, Bezir-Akçay ve Özyurt (2014) 2013 Akgün, Özkara ve Tokur (2013) 2010 Altun, E. (2010) 2016 Arık, M. (2016) 2014 Arlı, E. E. (2014) 2016 Atabey, N. (2016) 2017 Akçay ve Baltacı (2017) 2016 Balcı ve Yenice (2016) 2015 Cevher, A. H. (2015) 2012 Ceylan, K. E. (2012) 2013 Cin ve Türkoğuz (2013) 2016 Çal ve Akarsu (2016) 2016 Çiftçi, A. (2016) 2014 Çınar ve Bayraktar (2014) 2014 Akgün, Çinici, Deniz, Herdem, Karabiber ve Özden (2014) 2015 Demirel, R. (2015) 2016 Demirel, R. (2016) 2009 Deveci, A. (2009) 2016 Doğru, S. (2016) 2016 Erol, Akçay, Bayram ve Kapıcı (2016) 2014 Ersoy, N. (2014) 2012 Günel, Kıngır ve Geban (2012) 2010 Günel, Kabataş- Memiş ve Büyükkasap (2010) 2014 Hasançebi, F. (2014) 2013 Kardaş, N. (2013) 2009 Köroğlu, L. S. (2009) 2012 Küçük, H.(2012) 2011 Kabataş-Memiş, E. (2011) 2014 Kabataş-Memiş, E.(2014) 2016 Namdar ve Demir (2016) 2012 Okumuş, S. (2012) 2014 Öğreten ve Uluçınar – Sağır (2014) 2011 Özkara, D. (2011) 2016 Şahin, E. (2016) 2010 Şahin ve Hacıoğlu (2010) 2014 Şahintürk, G. Y. (2014) 2009 Tekeli, A. (2009) 2015 Ulu ve Bayram (2015) 2012 Uluay, G. (2012) 2008 Uluçınar-Sağır (2008) 2013 Uluçınar-Sağır Ve Kılıç (2013) 2013 Yeşildağ-Hasançebi ve Günel (2013) 275 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Bulgular Bu bölümde araştırma sorularına ilişkin bulgular verilecektir. Her araştırma sorusu için edinilen bulgu ayrı bölümler halinde verilip grafiklerle desteklenecektir. Çalışmaların Yıllara ve Türlere Göre Dağılımı Bu bölümde çalışmamızın birinci ve ikinci araştırma sorularının odaklanmış olduğu incelenen araştırmaların yıllara ve türlere göre dağılımıyla ilgili bilgiler sunulacaktır. Araştırmaya dahil edilen çalışmaların yıllara göre dağılımı Grafik 1 de gösterilmektedir. GRAFİK 1: Çalışmaların Yıllara Ve Türlerine Göre Dağılımı 8 6 4 2 0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 YL tez 2012 D tez 2013 Makale 2014 2015 2016 2017 Bildiri Grafik 1. Çalışmaların yıllara ve türlerine göre dağılımı Grafik 1 incelendiğinde fen eğitiminde argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını kullanan çalışmaların 2008 yılından itibaren artışa geçtiği, 2014 ve 2016 yıllarında çalışma sayılarında yüksek bir artış olduğu görülüyor. Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmenin2013 yılında MEB Fen Bilimleri dersi öğretim programına girmesiyle araştırmacıların ilgisi de artmış olabilir. Bu ilgi maalesef 2016 yılından sonra birdenbire durma noktasına gelmiş görünüyor. Araştırmaların türlerine baktığımızda ise %47 sinin (20) makale, %39sinin (17) yüksek lisans tezi, %12 sinin (5) doktora tezi ve%2 sinin (1) bildiri olduğu görülmektedir. Çalışmaların Örneklem Büyüklüğü ve Çeşidi Bu kısımda incelenen çalışmaların hangi örneklemler üzerine çalıştıkları ve örneklem büyüklükleri üzerine odaklanan üçüncü araştırma sorusuna cevap aranacaktır. Araştırmaya dahil edilen çalışmaların örneklem ve çalışma grupları tablolar halinde verilmiştir. Tablo 2 incelendiğinde araştırmacıların büyük çoğunluğu çalışmalarında (21-50 öğrenci) iki farklı sınıf üzerinde araştırmalarını yürütmüştür. Araştırmaların deneysel deseni tercih etmesi ve ulaşılabilir örneklem seçmeleri bunda etkili olmuş olabilir. Yine büyük oranda araştırma 51-100 öğrenci ile çalışarak daha geniş örneklemden veri toplamaya çalışmıştır. Çok az bir oranda araştırma 100’ün üzerinde öğrenci ile çalışmış ve bu araştırmalar örneklem büyüklüğünden de anlaşılacağı üzere betimsel tarama amacını gütmüşlerdir. Odak olarak özel bir örneklemi seçen araştırmaların ise örneklem sayısı 20’nin altında kalmıştır. Bu nitelikteki araştırmaların sayıca az ve nitel deseni seçen araştırmalar olduğu görülmüştür. Tablo 2. Araştırmaların örneklem büyüklüğü Örneklem Büyüklüğü Araştırma Sayısı ve Yüzdesi* 3 (%7) 0-20 Öğrenci 19 (%44) 21-50 öğrenci (iki sınıf) 17 (%40) 51-100 öğrenci (üç sınıf) 4 (%9) 100+ öğrenci *Yüzde değerleri hesaplanırken sayılar en yakın tam sayıya yuvarlanmıştır. 276 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Tablo 3. Araştırma örneklemlerinin sınıf düzeyi Sınıf düzeyi Araştırma sayısı ve yüzdesi* 1 (%2) 4 6 (%14) 5 8 (%18) 6 11 (%26) 7 18 (%42) 8 2 (%5) Belirtilmeyen *Yüzde değerleri hesaplanırken sayılar en yakın tam sayıya yuvarlanmıştır. Sınıf düzeyi ile ilgili bulgular için Tablo 3 oluşturulmuştur. Tablo 3 incelendiğinde araştırmacıların %42’si 8. sınıf öğrencileriyle çalışmayı tercih etmiş,%26’sı 7. sınıf öğrencileri ile çalışırken, %18’i 6. sınıf öğrencilerini, %14’ü 5. sınıf öğrencilerini tercih etmiş, % 2’si 4. sınıf öğrencileri ile çalışmıştır. İki çalışma örneklemini ortaokul diye tanıtarak sınıf düzeyini belirtmemiştir. İlkokul 1, 2 ve 3. sınıf düzeyleri üzerine yapılan bir çalışmaya ise rastlanmamıştır. Araştırmaların Gerçekleştirildikleri Bağlamlar Araştırmaların gerçekleştirildikleri bağlama ait bulgular Tablo 4 de gruplanarak verilmiştir. Tablo 4 incelendiğinde araştırmacıların argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını test etmek için okuldaki fen derslerinden yararlandıkları görülmektedir. Az sayıda çalışma ise üstün zekâlı öğrencilerin eğitim aldığı BİLSEM’lerde bu modelin etkisini araştırma yoluna gitmiştir. Araştırmacılar argümantasyonun etkilerini görmek için öğrencilere derslerde uygulayarak veri toplamışlardır. Tablo 4. Araştırmaların yapıldığı bağlama göre dağılışı Çalışılan bağlam Çalışma kodları Yüzdesi * Fen bilimleri / Fen ve teknoloji / 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, %95 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, Bilim uygulamaları derslerinde 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43 10, 35 %5 BİLSEM etkinliklerinde *Yüzde değerleri hesaplanırken sayılar en yakın tam sayıya yuvarlanmıştır. Araştırmalarda Kullanılan Yöntem ve Desenler Bu araştırma sorusunun yanıtı aşağıdaki tabloda gruplanarak verilmiştir. (Tablo 5) Araştırma deseni Tablo 5. Araştırmaların başvurduğu yönteme göre dağılımı Kullanılan yöntem Araştırma kodları Yüzdesi* Eylem araştırması Fenomenoloji Betimsel araştırma Nitel araştırma Söylem çözümlemesi Deneyselyarı deneysel 7, 30, 31 5 14 13 23 %16 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 27 28, 29, 33, 34, 38,39, 40, 42, 43 %60 Deneysel, yarı 6, 15, 17, 24, 25, 26, 32, 35, 36, 37, deneysel + görüşme, 41 betimsel analiz *Yüzde değerleri hesaplanırken sayılar en yakın tam sayıya yuvarlanmıştır. %26 Nicel Karma Tablo 5 incelendiğinde araştırmacıların modeli test etmek için çoğunlukla nicel yöntemlerden deneysel ve yarı deneysel yöntemleri kullandığını göstermektedir. Deneysel yöntemlerde bağımsız değişkenin bağımlı değişkeni nasıl etkilediğini görmek için deneysel desenler kullanılır (Büyüköztürk ve diğerleri, 2017). Deney ve kontrol grubu oluşturularak deney grubunda etkililiği araştırılacak yöntem/ bağımsız değişken; kontrol grubunda ise programın öngördüğü yöntem uygulanır ve uygulama sonucu çıkan farklılıklar bağımsız değişkene yorulur. İrdelenen çalışmalara bakıldığında deneysel desenle argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin 277 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey akademik başarılarına, fen’e yönelik tutumlarına, eleştirel düşünme becerilerine, bilimsel düşünme becerilerine, karar verme becerilerine, tartışma istek ve becerilerine, soru yapılarına, kavram yanılgılarına, problem çözme becerilerine vb. etkisi incelenmiştir. Deneysel desenler tasarlanırken argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının Tahmin et - Gözle – Açıkla [TGA] stratejisi, kavram karikatürleri, grup tartışmaları gibi teknikleri denenmiş; benzetim, araştırma sorgulama temelli öğretim, işbirlikli öğrenme, örnek olay gibi öğretim modelleri ile birlikte kullanımı karşılaştırılmış ve sosyo-bilimsel konular başta olmak üzere argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımına uyarlanması nispeten daha kolay olan fen bilimlerinin genellikle fizik alanındaki üniteleri ile çalışılmıştır. İncelenen araştırmalarda deneysel yöntemlerle elde edilen sonuçları test etmek veya farklı araştırma sorularına da cevap bulabilmek için nicel ve nitel araştırma yöntemlerinin birlikte kullanıldığı karma yöntem de oldukça rağbet görmüştür. Argümantasyon-Tabanlı Öğrenme ile İlişkilendirilen Değişkenler Tablo 6 da incelenen araştırmaların argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme ile ilişkisini incelediği değişkenler verilmiştir. Tablo 6. Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı ile ilişkisi incelenen değişkenlerin dağılımı İncelenen değişken Araştırma kodları Yüzdesi* Fen bilimleri kazanımlarında 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, %56 akademik başarı 27, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, 43 Karar verme becerileri 26 %2 Problem çözme becerileri 13, 26 %5 Tartışma becerileri 7, 22, 26, 31, 32, 33, 15 %16 Bilimin doğası anlayışları 1, 4, 9, 11, 38, 41, 42 %16 Fene yönelik tutumları 4, 8, 9, 11, 24, 28, 34, 41 %19 Kavramsal anlamaya etkisi 1, 2, 8, 9,11, 12, 18, 22, 28, 32, 36, 38, 41, 42, %35 ve kavram öğrenimi 15 Bilimsel süreç becerilerine 1, 8, 39, 15 %9 etkisi Sosyo-bilimsel konularla 7, 37 %5 Okuma anlama 36 %2 Eleştirel düşünme becerileri 11, 35, 15 %7 Bilimsel kanıtları kullanma 22 %2 becerieri Argüman geliştirme 14, 16, 25, 27, 23 %12 düzeyleri Üstbiliş becerileri 6, 35 %5 Bilimsel yaratıcılık 10 %2 Bilim-Sözde bilim ayrımı 5 %2 Tartışmaya isteklilik 18, 20, 41, 15 %9 Bilişsel düşünme becerileri 19, 20 %5 Bilimsel bilgiye yönelik 34 %2 görüşler Soru yapıları 23 %2 Tablo 6 incelendiğinde araştırmacıların argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını test etmek istedikleri esas değişken fen kazanımlarına yönelik akademik başarıdır. 24 çalışma akademik başarının nasıl değiştiğini araştırmıştır. Bunun yanında araştırmacılar argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı ile birlikte öğrencilerin kavramsal anlamalarına, sırasıyla fen’e yönelik tutumlarına, bilimin doğası anlayışlarına, tartışma becerilerine, argüman geliştirme düzeylerine ve tartışma istekliliklerine, bilimsel süreç becerilerine ve eleştirel düşünme becerilerine, problem çözme becerilerine, sosyo-bilimsel konulara, üstbiliş becerileri ve bilişsel düşünme becerilerine bakmışlardır. Birer çalışma ise karar verme becerileri, okuma anlama becerileri, bilimsel kanıtları kullanma becerileri, bilimsel yaratıcılık, bilim-sözde bilim ayrımı, soru yapıları ve bilimsel bilgiye yönelik görüşleri incelemiştir. 278 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey İncelenen Çalışmaların Gerçekleştiği Süre Özellikleri Araştırmaların çalıştığı boylamsal değişim nasıldır? sorusuna daha anlaşılır yanıt verilebilmesi için araştırmalar uygulama sürelerine göre kısa, orta ve uzun süreli olarak üçe ayrılmıştır. Boylamsal bakımdan araştırmalar 6 hafta veya 24 saatten kısa süreli uygulama yapmış ise kısa süreli, 6 hafta ila 10 hafta arasında yapılan çalışmalar orta süreli ve 10 haftadan uzun sürede uygulanan çalışmalar uzun süreli olarak kodlanmıştır. Ulaşılan sonuçlar aşağıdaki grafikte gösterilmiştir. Araştırmaların Boylamsal Dağılımı 18 16 17 15 Çalışma sayısı 14 12 10 10 8 6 4 2 0 kısa süreli orta süreli uzun süreli Grafik 2. Araştırmaların boylamsal dağılımı Grafik 2 incelendiğinde araştırmacıların orta ve kısa süreli araştırmaları daha çok tercih ettiği görülmektedir. Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrenciler ve öğretmenler tarafından tanınması ve benimsenmesi için bir zaman gerektiği düşünülürse araştırmaların çoğu bir ünite veya birkaç haftalık uygulama ile sınırlı kalmıştır. İncelenen Araştırmalar Neler Amaçlamaktadır? Bu araştırma sorusunun yanıtlanması için bir tablo oluşturulmuştur. Tablo 7. Çalışmaya dahil edilen araştırmaların amaçları Amaçlar Araştırma sayısı Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının akademik başarıya etkisini 24 araştırmak Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin fene, bilimsel 9 bilgiye ya da tartışma etkinliklerine yönelik tutumlarını araştırmak Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı ile çeşitli (tartışma, eleştirel düşünme, karar verme vb.) becerilerin değişimini incelemek Sosyo-bilimsel konuların argümantasyonla öğretilmesi Araştırma sorgulama temelli aktiviteleri içeren argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımınin diğer değişkenler ( akademik başarı, kavrama vb.) ile ilişkisini araştırmak Örnek olay temelli etkinlikler ile yürütülen argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımınin etkisini araştırmak Özel bir grupta argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımınin diğer değişkenlere etkisini araştırmak Tartışma niteliklerinin araştırılması Çoklu yazma etkinlikleri, kavram karikatürleri ya da TGA stratejisi veya benzetim teknikleri ile yürütülen argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımınin diğer değişkenlere etkisini incelemek Bilginin kalıcılığına etkisi, öz değerlendirmenin sürece etkisi araştırmaları Bilimin doğası anlayışına etkisini incelemek 279 14 2 2 2 3 5 6 3 7 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Tablo 7 incelendiğinde araştırmacılar argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin akademik başarısına, kavramsal anlama düzeylerine, fen’e yönelik tutumlarına, eleştirel düşünme becerilerine, üstbiliş kavramlarına, soru yapılarına, tartışma istek ve becerilerine, özgüvenlerine, karar verme ve problem çözme becerilerine etkisini incelemek istemiştir. Üstün yetenekli öğrencilerin ve tartışma yöntemi ile ilk defa karşılaşan dezavantajlı öğrencilerin tartışma becerilerini de inceleyerek evreni genişletmeye çalışmışlardır. Ayrıca araştırmacılar sosyo-bilimsel konuların öğretiminde doğası gereği ortaya çıkan ikilemleri argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öngördüğü tartışma teknikleri ile ilişkilendirerek incelemişlerdir. Araştırmacılar ayrıca argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını araştırma sorgulama temelli öğrenme etkinlikleri ve örnek olay temelli etkinlikler ile birlikte kullanarak kullanılabilir bir model bulmaya çalışmışlardır. Araştırmacılar yazma etkinlikleri, kavram karikatürleri ve tahmin et gözle açıkla (TGA) gibi etkinliklerle sınıf içi etkinlikleri karşılaştırmaya imkan vermişlerdir. İncelenen Araştırma Sonuçlarında Nelere Ulaşılmıştır? Bilişsel özelliklere yönelik sonuçlar Yapılan araştırmalarda büyük çoğunlukla argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrenci başarısına etkisinin olup olmadığı incelenmiştir. Ulaşılan sonuçlara göre argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı fen bilimleri öğretim programının öngördüğü yöntem ve tekniklere ya da geleneksel diye tanımlanan düz anlatım ve soru-cevap tekniklerine kıyasla öğrencilerin akademik başarılarında anlamlı derecede ve pozitif yönde etki yapmaktadır ( bkz. 2, 3, 4, 9, 11, 15, 16, 19, 20, 24, 25, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43). Ayrıca öğrenciler de bu süreçte kendilerini daha başarılı bulduklarını, daha iyi öğrendiklerini ifade etmişlerdir (bkz.30). Öte yandan öğrencilerin akademik başarılarında argümantasyonla karşılaştırılan yönteme göre anlamlı bir fark tespit etmeyen araştırmalar da mevcuttur (bkz. 1, 17). Bu araştırmalar elde ettikleri sonucu yorumlarken kontrol grubunun da yeterince öğrenci merkezli yöntemlerle ders işlediğini veya öğrencilerin argümantasyon ile ilk defa karşılaşmasından dolayı yeterince olgunlaşmadığını belirtmişlerdir. 25 kodlu çalışma ise çoktan seçmeli sorularla yapılan başarı testlerinde bir fark oluşmazken daha fazla yaratıcılık ve özgünlük gerektiren açık uçlu sorularda argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının daha etkili olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Araştırmaların kavram yanılgıları üzerine ortaya koyduğu sonuçlar ise oldukça dikkat çekicidir. Beklendiği üzere doğasında tartışma ve iddiasını verilerle destekleyerek öğrendiklerini öğrencilere sürekli kullandırma olan argümantasyon kavram öğrenmeyi kolaylaştırmaktadır (bkz. 2, 12, 18, 21, 28, 29, 32, 36, 38 ); başarısını en çok artıran öğrenciler orta seviyede başarı gösteren öğrencileridir (bkz. 29); bilginin kalıcılığı üzerinde olumlu sonuç bildiren çalışmalar da bulunmaktadır (bkz. 25, 29, 34, 35, 41). Öğrencilerin eleştirel ve bilimsel düşünme becerileri olumlu gelişmiştir (bkz. 1, 6, 10, 15, 20, 30, 35, 37). Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını sınıf olarak veya grup tartışması şeklinde inceleyen araştırmacılar grup tartışmalarının sınıf içi tartışmalardan bir takım farkları olduğunu bulmuşlardır. Buna göre bilginin algılamasında artış sağladığı (bkz. 19, 38); tartışma öğelerinin kullanımında artış sağladığı (bkz. 17); kalıcı öğrenme sağladığı (bkz.29); yanlış öğrenmeleri düzelttiği (bkz. 13) bildirilmiştir. Bu araştırmalara göre öğrencilerin akranlarından öğrenmedeki becerisi ve öğrenmenin sorumluluğu nedenlerinden dolayı grup tartışmaları sınıf içi tartışmalardan daha yararlı olmuştur. Öğrencilerin kendi öğrenmelerindeki sorumluluğu üstlenmelerine katkı sağlayan öz değerlendirme, argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı ile birlikte kullanıldığında (bkz. 24, 29) bilginin kalıcılığında da artış sağlanmıştır. Bilimsel bilginin doğasının ve bilimin doğası anlayışlarının etkileşimini inceleyen araştırmalara göre argümantasyon bu değişkenleri olumlu etkilemiştir (bkz. 4, 11, 38, 41, 42). Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının sosyo-bilimsel konuları öğretmede bu konuların doğasında var olan ikilemden dolayı oldukça kullanışlı olduğu da belirtilmiştir (bkz. 7, 37). Duyuşsal özelliklere yönelik sonuçlar Çalışmaların çoğunda argümantasyon öğrencilerin fen’e karşı tutumlarında anlamlı bir değişiklik sağlanamamıştır (bkz. 3, 4, 8, 11, 13, 21, 34, 41). Bu durumu araştırmacılar öğrencilerin fen’e yönelik tutumlarının dirençli olmasına ve daha fazla zamana ihtiyaç duyulmasına bağlamıştır (bkz. 11, 22). Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin fen’e yönelik tutumlarında olumlu değişiklik olduğunu bildiren çalışmalar da olmuştur (bkz. 9, 28, 38). Öğrencilerin tartışmaya isteklilikleri artmıştır (bkz. 15, 18, 20, 38) Tartışmaya katılmadaki özgüven ve cesaretleri (bkz. 29,25,40,30) artmıştır. Öğrenciler tartışma yöntemini derslerin daha aktif geçmesi, derse 280 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey katılmaya fırsat sağlaması, yapılan deneyler ve etkileşim gibi nedenlerle daha çok sevmiştir (bkz. 15, 16, 17, 24, 25, 30, 32, 35, 40). Psikomotor özelliklere yönelik sonuçlar Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı öğrencilerin tartışma becerilerini ve tartışmaya istekliliklerini de etkilemiştir. Tartışma becerilerini artırdığını gösteren çalışmalar (bkz.7, 11, 13, 17, 25, 26, 27, 32, 33, 41) bulunmaktadır. Bilimsel süreç becerilerini artırdığını (bkz.15, 39) kaydeden çalışmaya karşılık herhangi bir olumlu fark saptayamayan çalışma da mevcuttur (bkz. 21) Karar verme becerileri artmıştır (bkz. 37) Problem çözme becerilerinin arttığını ise bir çalışma ( bkz. 38) bildirmiştir. Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı öğrencilerin birbirleriyle iletişimini ve etkileşimini artırmıştır (bkz. 25, 30, 35). Argümantasyon öğelerinin kullanımına yönelik sonuçlar Argümantasyon öğelerinin kullanımını araştıran çalışmalara bakacak olursak; öğrencilerin kaliteli bir argümantasyon için kullanmaları gereken; çünkü, bu sebepten dolayı eğer, şayet, neden, nereden anladın ifadelerini kullanma sıklığı bu modelin kullanımıyla birlikte artıyor (bkz. 11); öğrenciler tartışma öğeleri ile desteklenen öğrenme ortamlarında ilişkilendirme öğesini daha çok kullanıyor ama garanti öğesinin kullanımı için yeterli şartlar oluşmayabiliyor (bkz. 27); 11 yaş grubunda iddia, veri ve zayıf çürütmeler kullanıldığını, öğrencilerin genelde orta düzey argümanlar ürettiğini, hatırlatmalarla düzeyin yükseldiğini bildiren (bkz. 31) çalışmaya karşılık 5-6-7. sınıf seviyelerinde argümantasyon niteliğini araştıran 14 kodlu araştırmaya göre öğrenciler en çok iddia öğesini kullanmakta, karşıt iddia ve gerekçe üretmekte ise başarısızdır. Yine 14 kodlu çalışmaya göre sınıflarda en çok soruyu genelde öğretmen soruyor ama öğretmen soru sayısı ile argümantasyon kalitesi arasında bir ilişki bulunmuyor. 7 kodlu araştırmaya göre ise sosyo-bilimsel konuların argümantasyonla öğretilmesinde öğrencilerin iddia, kanıt ve muhakeme puanlarında artış kaydedildiği belirtilmiştir. Öte yandan argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımında tartışmalar sırasında öğrencilerin iddia, veri, gerekçe, destek, karşıt iddia ve çürütme gibi öğeleri kullanırken ön bilgilerini kullanması gerektiğinden öğrencilerin sahip olduğu kavram yanılgılarını tespit etmede de etkilidir (bkz. 36, 13). Fakat dikkat edilmesi gereken ise küçük grup tartışmaları yaparken öğrencilerin sahip olduğu kavram yanılgılarını diğer öğrencilere de transfer edebileceğidir (bkz. 12, 16). Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını öğretim yöntemleri ile birlikte değerlendiren çalışmalara baktığımızda ise araştırma sorgulama temelli yaklaşımla birlikte ele alan bir çalışmada öğrencilere araştırma sorusu ve çözüm yöntemi sunulmadan sadece gerekli malzemeler verilerek problemi çözmeleri istendiğinde bilimsel süreç becerilerinin tüm boyutlarında gelişme sağlandığını (bkz. 39); Örnek olay yöntemi ile argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını birlikte değerlendiren (bkz. 36) bir çalışmada kavram yanılgılarının ortaya çıkarılmasında ve giderilmesinde oldukça etkili olduğu da görülmüştür. İncelenen Araştırmaların Sundukları Öneriler Nelerdir? Son on yılda fen eğitiminde argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının etkisini ilköğretim öğrencileriyle çalışarak inceleyen çalışmaları analiz ettiğimiz bu çalışmada araştırmacıların diğer araştırmacılar, öğretmenler ve öğretim programı/ ders kitabı tasarlayıcıları için getirdiği önerileri aşağıdaki şekilde özetleyebiliriz: Araştırmacılara yönelik öneriler;  Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı etkilerinin daha iyi görülebilmesi için daha uzun süreli uygulamalar gerçekleştirilmelidir (bkz.4, 5, 8, 11, 16, 17, 18, 25, 26, 29, 32, 34, 37, 38, 40, 41).  Sadece fen bilimleri dersinde değil diğer derslerde de etkisi araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 14, 17, 25, 26, 28, 32, 34, 36, 39, 40).  İlkokul veya ortaokul düzeylerinin farklı seviyelerinde de araştırılmalıdır (bkz.2, 4, 6, 14, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 34, 38, 39).  Daha geniş örneklemlerle araştırılarak genelenebilirliği sağlanmalıdır (bkz. 4, 6, 11, 17, 34, 36, 38, ,40 ).  Sosyo bilimsel konularda etkililiği incelenmelidir (bkz. 4, 11, 17, 18, 20, 34, 36, 41 ).  Öğretmen- öğrenci etkileşimine etkisi araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 6).  Farklı fen bilimleri üniteleri ile de çalışılmalıdır (bkz. 2, 8, 20, 24, 26, 28, 41).  Grupla argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 11, 12, 19, 25). 281 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey                   Öğretmenlerin pedagojik alan bilgisini nasıl değiştirdiği araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 25). Öğretmenlerin argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımıni kullanma yeterlilikleri araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 37). Farklı sosyo ekonomik düzey öğrencilerdeki değişimi incelenmelidir (bkz. 25) Dezavantajlı veya çifte dezavantajlı öğrencilerde etkililiği incelenebilir (bkz. 6) Argümantasyon becerilerinin günlük yaşamdaki yansımaları araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 25) Yazma becerilerine etkisine bakılmalıdır (bkz. 6, 14, 21, 29) Sözlü argümantasyon becerileri incelenmelidir (bkz. 25). Argümantasyon ve bilimin doğası etkileşimi incelenebilir (bkz. 1, 11, 40) Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımınin neden yaygın uygulanmadığı görüşmelerle ortaya çıkarılabilir (bkz. 14) Öğretmenlerin soruları ile argümantasyon kalitesi karşılaştırılmalıdır (bkz. 14, 41). Tartışma yöntemin avantaj ve sınırlılıkları karşılaştırılmalıdır (bkz. 27). Tartışma yönteminin diğer öğretim yöntemleri ile birlikte kullanımı araştırılmalıdır (bkz.3, 13, 17, 18, 27, 32). Öğrencilerin bilimsel tartışmaya yönelik görüşlerini ölçen bir ölçek geliştirilmelidir (bzk. 37). Farklı argümantasyon etkinlikleri tasarlanarak yöntem zenginleştirilmelidir (bkz. 3, 13, 16, 28, 33). Öğrenmenin kalıcılığına etkisi araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 18). Nitel çalışmalar yapılmalıdır (bkz. 2, 3). Video kayıtları ile desteklenen içerik araştırmaları yapılmalıdır (bkz. 23). Üst düzey düşünme soruları kullanılarak başka araştırmalar tasarlanmalı (bkz. 13).Üst ve alt bilişsel kavramayı ölçen araçlarla yöntemin etkinliği test edilmelidir (bkz. 1). Öğretmenlere yönelik öneriler;  Sosyo bilimsel konularda kullanılabilir (bkz. 4, 11, 17, 18, 34, 36, 41).  Grupla argümantasyon kullanılmalıdır (bkz. 19, 20).  Öğretmenler öğrencilerin grup çalışmalarında rehberlik etmelidir ve gruptaki öğrencilerin her birinin görevi kesin çizgilerle belirlenmelidir (bkz. 22).  Alternatif değerlendirme teknikleri kullanılmalıdır (bkz. 29).  Öğretmenler daha fazla sınıf içi tartışma yaptırmalıdır. Bu tartışmalarda yardım isteyen öğrencileri akran desteği ile desteklenmelidir. Tartışma etkinlikleri titizlikle planlanmalıdır. Tartışma becerilerinin gelişmesi için yöntem ilkokuldan itibaren kullanılmalıdır (bkz. 27).  Küçük yaştaki öğrencilerin adaptasyonu için somut nesnelerden faydalanılmalıdır (bkz. 31).  Sınıf mevcudu az olan sınıflarda sınıf kontrolü daha olacaktır (bkz.17, 32).  Öncelikle öğrencilere argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının kendisi öğretilerek etkinliklere geçilmelidir (bkz. 40).  Grup tartışmalarında kavram yanılgılarının da transfer edilebileceği göz önüne alınmalıdır (bkz. 12).  Yazma etkinlikleri öğrenciyi öğrenmesinden sorumlu kılacağı için kullanılması faydalı olabilir (2bkz. 1).  Öğretmenlerin soru kaliteleri tartışmayı yönlendirdiği için dikkatli soru sorulmalıdır (bkz. 12).  Argümantasyona daha çok yer verilmelidir (bkz. 13, 30).  Laboratuvar etkinliklerinde argümantasyona yer verilmelidir (bkz. 39).  Dezavantajlı öğrencilerin iletişim ve ifade becerilerini geliştirebileceği beklenebilir (43). Öğretim programı veya ders kitabı tasarlayıcıları için verilen öneriler;  Ders kitaplarında argümantasyon etkinliklerine yer verilmelidir (bkz.2, 13, 38)  Öğretmenlere bu model tanıtılmalı, becerilerini geliştirici hizmet içi eğitimler verilmelidir (bkz. 4, 6, 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 29, 32, 34, 37, 38, 40) Sonuç ve Tartışma Ülkemizde bilimsel tartışma-argümantasyon modeli ile ilgili son on yılda ilköğretim öğrencileri ile yapılan araştırmalar incelendiğinde, çalışmaların son dönemde yoğunlaştığı, ilgili çalışmaların akademik başarı, kavramsal değişim, tartışma becerileri ve fen’e yönelik tutum v.b. yapılara argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının etkisi konularında aydınlatıcı bilgilere ulaşılmayı hedeflediği söylenebilir Bu araştırmanın kapsamını oluşturan 2007 yılından bu yana yapılan araştırmalarda, hemen her yıl argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına, fen’e yönelik tutumlarına, bilimin doğası anlayışlarına ve bilimsel süreç becerilerine etkisi incelenmiştir. 2008 yılında yapılan araştırmalarda argümantasyonun akademik başarı, fen’e yönelik tutum, tartışma isteklilikleri üzerine etkisi incelenirken, 2011 yılında bunlara ek olarak öz değerlendirme yapılan modelin farkları gösterilmiştir. Doğası gereği sosyal etkileşim gerektiren argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı sosyal yapılandırmacı kuram ile 282 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey ilişkilendirilmiştir. 2013 yılında fen bilimleri öğretim programına alınan ve önerilen argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı ile ilgili çalışmalar bu tarihten sonra gözle görülür bir ivme kazanmıştır ve yaklaşıma uygun kullanılan teknikler de araştırmacıların ilgisini çekmeye başlamıştır. 2014 yılında dezavantajlı öğrencilerle de çalışılarak araştırmaların evrenini genişletilmiştir. Yapısında ikilemler olması nedeniyle sosyo-bilimsel konular argümantasyon araştırmalarında daha sık kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. 2015 yılında üstün yetenekli öğrencilerle de çalışılarak tartışma becerilerine etkisi incelenmiş ve 2016 yılında burada bahsedilen hemen her değişken ile ilgili çalışmalar devam etmiştir. Argümantasyona ülkemizde diğer ülkelerden daha geç ilgi gösterilmiştir. Uluslararası ESERA 2009 konferansında sunulan bildirileri inceleyen Öztürk ve Kaptan (2014), konferansta sunulan bildirilerde Türkiye’de fen eğitiminde argümantasyon konulu bildiriye rastlamadıklarını bildirmiştir. Buna karşın yapılan çalışmalar da o tarihten sonra yıldan yıla genellikle artmıştır. Sayıca en çok çalışma 2014 ve 2016 yıllarında yapılmıştır. 2017 yılında çalışma sayısında ise bir düşüş gözlenmiştir. Çalışmaların örneklemine baktığımızda en çok çalışmanın 8. sınıf öğrencileri üzerine olduğunu görmekteyiz. Bunun sebebi argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının gerektirdiği tartışma becerisine yaş ve bilgi düzeylerinden dolayı 8. sınıfların daha kolay adapte olabileceği beklentisi olabilir. İlkokul 1. 2. ve 3. sınıflarla yapılan bir çalışmaya rastlanmamış olmasının ise iki sebebi olabilir; birincisi bu çocukların küçük olması sebebiyle tartışma için gereken bilgi düzeyi ve becerinin yetersiz olması, ikincisi ise fen bilimleri dersi programının 3. sınıftan başlaması olabilir. İlkokul düzeyinde argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını kullanırken bu çocukların somut işlemler döneminde olduğu düşünülerek üzerinde tartışılacak objenin sınıfa getirilmesi ile birtakım problemler giderilebilir (bkz. 31). Bu konuda Küçük ve Aycan’ın (2014) yaptığı bir araştırmada araştırmacıların argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını test etmek için ilköğretim ve yükseköğretim öğrencilerini seçtiğini görmüş ve nicel araştırmalar için gereken testleri bu gruptaki öğrencilere daha kolay uygulanabileceği için araştırmacıların tercihinin bu yönde olabileceğini belirtmiştir. Araştırmalar büyük oranda deneysel olarak tasarlanmıştır. Deney grubu ve kontrol gruplu desenler çoğunluktadır, bu nedenle çalışmaların bağlamı okulda iki veya üç sınıfın çalışma grubu olarak yer aldığı fen bilimleri dersi ya da bu araştırmalar için daha elverişli olan seçmeli bilim uygulamaları dersi olmuştur. Az sayıda çalışma da üstün yetenekli öğrencilerin destek eğitimi gördüğü BİLSEM’lerde yapılmıştır. Araştırmacılar tartışma yönteminin üstün yetenekli öğrencilerin yaratıcılıklarına nasıl etki ettiğini incelemişlerdir. Araştırmaların çoğu deneysel desenli olmuştur. Araştırmacıların, yaklaşımın henüz ortaya çıkmamış özelliklerini belirleyebilmek ve derinlemesine anlamak için daha çok nitel çalışma yapması gerekmektedir. Bu sorunu aşmak için bazı araştırmacılar nicel çalışmalarına görüşme yöntemini de ekleyerek gömülü karma deseni uygulamışlardır. Böylece nicel olarak elde edilemeyecek verilere de ulaşmışlardır. Kabataş-Memiş (2017) de tezleri incelediği araştırmasında araştırmacılara farklı örneklem grupları ile bilimsel bilginin transferine yönelik daha derinlemesine ve kendini tekrar etmeyen nicel/nitel araştırmalara gereksinim duyulduğunu belirtmiştir. Sonuçlara bakacak olursak araştırmacıların argümantasyon yaklaşımıyla esas incelemek istedikleri değişkenin akademik başarı olduğu görülmektedir. Kabataş-Memiş (2017) 2015 yılına kadar yapılmış argümantasyon konulu tezleri incelediği ve uluslararası bir konferansta sözlü bildiri olarak sunduğu çalışmasında araştırmacıların öncelikle argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının akademik başarıya etkisini incelemek istediği, süreç sonunda da bazı becerilerin değişiminin ölçülmesine ağırlık verildiğini belirtmiştir. Bunun yanında araştırmacılar argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı ile birlikte öğrencilerin kavramsal anlamalarını, fen’e yönelik tutumlarını, bilimin doğası anlayışlarını, tartışma becerilerini, argüman geliştirme düzeylerini, tartışma istekliliklerini, bilimsel süreç becerilerini, eleştirel düşünme becerilerini, problem çözme becerilerini, sosyo bilimsel konuları, üstbiliş becerileri ve bilişsel düşünme becerilerini araştırmışlardır. Birer çalışma ile karar verme becerileri, okuma anlama becerileri, bilimsel kanıtları kullanma becerileri, bilimsel yaratıcılık, bilim-sözde bilim ayrımı, soru yapıları ve bilimsel bilgiye yönelik görüşleri de incelenmiştir. Bu alanların genişletilmeye ihtiyacı vardır. Küçük ve Ayçan da (2014) yaptıkları literatür taramasında argüman kalitesi, bilgi düzeyi, sosyobilimsel konular ve kavramsal anlama gibi konuların öne çıktığını, bu konuları bilimin doğası, fen’e yönelik tutum, tartışma istekliliği, ATBÖ (argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğretimi) ve yazılı bilimsel tartışma konularının izlediğini bildirmiştir. Çetinkaya ve Taşar (2017) 2004 ve 2016 yılları arasında yapılan fen eğitiminde argümantasyonu konu alan bütün çalışmaları incelediği araştırmasında argümantasyon ile ilgili yapılan çalışmalarda ilk 5 sırada gösterilen beceriye yönelik, akademik başarıya yönelik, tutuma yönelik, kavramsal anlamaya yönelik ve bilimin doğasına yönelik araştırmaların olduğunu belirtmiştir. Araştırmaların boylam olarak dağılımını incelediğimizde araştırmacılar argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını genel olarak 10 haftadan daha kısa sürede test etmişlerdir. Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının etkinliğinin daha iyi görülebilmesi için daha uzun süreli araştırmalara ihtiyaç vardır. 283 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Araştırma sonuçlarında argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına ve kavramsal anlama düzeyine olumlu katkı yaptığı ortadadır. Özellikle küçük grup tartışmalarında öğrencilerin etkileşim içine girmesiyle özgüvenleri de gelişmektedir. Bununla birlikte geriye dönük zihinsel tarama gerektirdiği için tartışma ortamı öğrencilerin var olan kavram yanılgılarını ortaya çıkarırken birbirlerine aktarmasına da yol açabilmektedir. Öğretmenlerin yöntemin daha etkili olması için grup tartışmasını tercih etmesi faydalı olacaktır ama gruptaki bütün öğrencilerin aktif katılımını sağlaması ve tartışmaları sürekli izlemesi de gerekecektir. Argümantasyon öğrencilerin fen’e yönelik tutumlarını değiştirememiştir bu durumun temel sebebi tutumların değişime dirençli olmasıdır. Bu olumsuzluk da ancak daha uzun süre ayrılması ile aşılabilir. Kabataş-Memiş (2017) de çalışmasında incelediği tezlerin tutuma yönelik bulgularının çoğunlukla nötr olduğunu sayıca çok az bir kısmında ise tutumun olumlu etkilendiğini tespit etmiştir. Araştırmacılar kendi araştırmalarından yola çıkarak bazı önerilerde de bulunmuşlardır. Araştırmaların daha uzun süreye ihtiyaç duyduğunu, diğer fen üniteleri ve diğer derslerde de uygulanmasını önermişlerdir. Kaynaklar Akçay, B. (2017). Fen Bilimleri Eğitimi Alanındaki Öğretme ve Öğrenme Yaklaşımları. Pegem Akademi, Ankara. Aktamış, H. ve Hiğde, E. (2015). Fen eğitiminde kullanılan argümantasyon modellerinin değerlendirilmesi. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 35, 136-172. Aldağ, H. (2006). Toulmin tartışma modeli. Ç. Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 15(1), 13-34. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Kılıç Çakmak, E., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, Ş. ve Demirel, F. (2016). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemleri, Ankara: PegemA Yayıncılık. Çetinkaya, E. ve Taşar M.F.(2017). Fen Bilimleri Eğitimi Alanında Türkiye Merkezli Argümantasyon Araştırmalarının Çeşitli Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (H. U. Journal of Education), s.1-29 doi: 10.16986/HUJE.2017030625 Çınar, D. (2013). Argümantasyon Temelli Fen Öğretiminin 5. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Öğrenme Ürünlerine Etkisi. Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi. Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Konya. Kabataş-Memiş, E. (2017). Türkiye’de argümantasyon konusunda gerçekleştirilen tezlerin analizi: Bir metasentez çalışması. Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education, 6(1), 47-65. Küçük, H., ve Aycan, H. Ş. (2014). 2007-2012 yılları arasında bilimsel tartışma üzerine gerçekleştirilmiş açık erişim çalışmaların bir incelemesi. Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(1). doi:10.21666/mskuefd.05345 Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (2006). İlköğretim Fen ve Teknoloji Dersi (6,7, ve 8. Sınıflar) Öğretim Programı. Ankara,:Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (2013) İlköğretim Kurumları (İlkokullar ve Ortaokullar) Fen Bilimleri Dersi Öğretim Programı. Ankara: Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (2017) Fen Bilimleri Dersi Öğretim Programı (İlkokul ve Ortaokul 3, 4, 5 ,6 , 7 ve 8. Sınıflar). Ankara: Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı Öztürk, E. ve Kaptan, F. (2014). “ESERA 2009” Fen eğitimi araştırmaları konferansı ve içeriğine bakış: Bilimin doğası, tarihi ve felsefesi, argümantasyon üzerine yapılmış çalışmalar. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 22(2), 649-672. Yıldırım, A. ve Şimşek, H. (2016). Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri. (23. Baskı). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. 284 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey İncelenen Makale, Tez ve Bildiriler Acar, Ö, Tola, Z., Karaçam, S., ve Bilgin, A. (2016). Argümantasyon destekli fen öğretiminin 6.sınıf öğrencilerinin kavramsal anlamalarına, bilimsel düşünme becerilerine ve bilimin doğası anlayışlarına olan etkisi. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 16 (3), 730-749. Akçay, H., Özyurt, B.B. ve Bezir Akçay, B. (2014). Çoklu yazma etkinliklerinin fen ve teknoloji dersi öğretiminde kullanılmasının öğrenci başarısı ve kavram öğrenmeye etkisi. Bayburt Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 9 (2), 15-31. Akgün, A. Tokur, F. Ve Özkara, D. (2013). TGA Stratejisinin Basınç Konusunun Öğretimine Olan Etkisinin İncelenmesi. Amasya Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2(2), 348-369 Altun, E. (2010). Işık ünitesinin ilköğretim öğrencilerine bilimsel tartışma (argümantasyon) odaklı yöntem ile öğretimi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara . Arık, M.(2016). Argümantasyon Tabanlı Öğrenme Yönteminin Yedinci Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Bilim Sözde-Bilim Ayrımı Farkındalığının Geliştirilmesi Üzerine Etkisi. İstanbul üniversitesi, eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü. İstanbul Arlı, E. (2014). Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme yaklaşımının (ATBÖ) mevsimlik tarım işçisi konumundaki dezavantajlı öğrencilerin akademik başarıları ve düşünme becerilerine etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Atatürk Üniversitesi, Erzurum. Atabey, N. (2016). Sosyobilimsel konu temelli bir ünitenin geliştirilmesi: yedinci sınıf öğrencilerinin konu alan bilgisi ve argümantasyon nitelikleri. Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi. Muğla sıtkı koçman üniversitesi, eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü. Muğla. Akçay, H. ve Baltacı, A.(2017). Astronomi Öğretiminde Öğrenme Amaçlı Çoklu Yazma Etkinliklerinin Değerlendirilmesi. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2017; 13(1): 138-151 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17860/mersinefd.305773 Balci, C. ve Yenice, N. (2016). Effects of the scientific argumentation based learning process on teaching the unit of cell division and inheritance to eighth grade students. Journal of Education in Science, Environment and Health (JESEH), 2(1), 67-84. doi: 10.21891/jeseh.28130 Cevher, A. (2015). 8. sınıf üstün yetenekli öğrencilerin anomalik durumlara odaklı argümantasyon (dayanaklandırma) sürecinin bilimsel yaratıcılık düzeylerine etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. İnönü Üniversitesi, Malatya Ceylan, K. E. (2012). İlköğretim 5. sınıf öğrencilerine dünya ve evren öğrenme alanının bilimsel tartışma (argümantasyon) odaklı yöntem ile öğretimi. Yüksek Lisans tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara. Cin, M. ve Türkoğuz, S. (2013). Argümantasyona Dayalı Kavram Karikatürü Etkinliklerinin Öğrencilerin Kavramsal Anlama Düzeylerine Etkisi. Buca Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 35, 155-173. Çal, M. ve Akarsu, B. (2016). İlköğretim 8.Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Pısa Sorusu Üzerinde Argümantasyon Tabanlı Sorgulama Becerilerinin İncelenmesi. 21. Yüzyılda Eğitim ve Toplum,5(14), 35-53. Çiftçi, A. (2016). 5., 6. ve 7. sınıflarda fen derslerinde argümantasyon kalitesinin incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Muş. Çınar, D. ve Bayraktar, S. (2014). Evaluation of the effects of argumentation based science teaching on 5th grade students’ conceptual understanding of the subjects related to “matter and change”. International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology, 2(1), 49-77. Çinici, A., Özden, M., Akgün, A., Herdem, K., Karabiber, H. L. ve Deniz, Ş. M. (2014). Kavram karikatürleriyle desteklenmiş argümantasyon temelli uygulamaların etkinliğinin incelenmesi. Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 18, 571-596. doi: 10.14520/adyusbd.839. Demirel, R. (2015). Kuvvet ve hareket konularında bireysel ve grupla argümantasyonun öğrencilerin akademik başarısına etkisi. Eğitimde Kuram ve Uygulama, 11(3), 916-948. doi: 10.17244/eku.05901 Demirel, R. (2016). Argümantasyon Destekli Öğretimin Öğrencilerin Kavramsal Anlama ve Tartışma İstekliliklerine Etkisi. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 24(3), 1087-1108 Deveci, A. (2009). İlköğretim Yedinci Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Maddenin Yapısı Konusunda Sosyo bilimsel Argümantasyon, Bilgi Seviyeleri Ve Bilişsel Düşünme Becerilerini Geliştirmek, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Doğru, S. (2016). Argümantasyon temelli sınıf içi etkinliklerin ortaokul 5. Sınıf öğrencilerinin akademik başarılarına mantıksal düşünme becerilerine ve tartışmaya istekliliklerine olan etkisi,yayımlanmaış yüksek lisans tezi, mustafa kemal üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, hatay Erol, G., Akçay, H., Bayram, H., & Kapıcı, H. Ö. (2016). Asit ve baz konusunun öğrenme amaçlı çoklu yazma etkinlikleri kullanılarak öğretiminin değerlendirilmesi. Eğitim, Bilim ve Teknoloji Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1(2), 94-102. Ersoy, N. (2014). Örnek olay temeli grup çalışmalarının öğrencilerin bilimsel kanıtları anlama ve kullanmalarına, argümantasyon becerilerine ve kavramsal anlamalarına etkisi. Yükse Lisans Tezi. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, İzmir. 285 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Günel, M., Kıngır, S. ve Geban, Ö. (2012). Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme (ATBÖ) yaklaşımının kullanıldığı sınıflarda argümantasyon ve soru yapılarının incelenmesi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 37(164), 316330. Günel, M., Kabatas-Memis, E. ve Büyükkasap, E. (2010). Yaparak yazarak bilim öğrenimi-yybö yaklasımının ilköğretim öğrencilerinin fen akademik basarısına ve fen ve teknoloji dersine yönelik tutumuna etkisi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 35(155), 49-62. Hasabçebi, F. (2014). Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme yaklaşımının (ATBÖ) öğrencilerin fen başarıları, argüman oluşturma becerileri ve bireysel gelişimleri üzerine etkisi. Doktora Tezi. Atatürk Üniversitesi, Erzurum. Kardaş, N. (2013). Fen eğitiminde argümantasyon odaklı öğretimin öğrencilerin karar verme ve problem çözme becerilerine etkisi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Köroğlu, L. (2009). 8. sınıf fen ve teknoloji dersi kalıtım konusunun tartışma öğeleri temelli rehber sorularla desteklenen benzetim ortamında öğretiminin akademik başarı ve tartışma öğelerini kullanma düzeyine etkisi. Yüksek Lisans tezi. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Adana. Küçük, H. (2012). İlköğretimde bilimsel tartışma destekli sınıf içi etkinliklerin kullanılmasının öğrencilerin kavramsal anlamalarına, sorgulayıcı öğrenme becerileri algılarına ve fen ve teknoloji'ye yönelik tutumlarına etkisi, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Sıtkı Koçman Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Muğla. Kabataş Memiş, E. (2011). Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme yaklaşımının ve öz değerlendirmenin ilköğretim öğrencilerinin fen ve teknoloji dersi başarısına ve başarının kalıcılığına etkisi. Doktora Tezi. Atatürk Üniversitesi, Erzurum. Kabataş Memiş, E. (2014). İlköğretim öğrencilerinin argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme yaklaşımı uygulamalarına ilişkin görüşleri. Kastamonu Üniversitesi Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 22(2), 401-418. Namdar, B. ve Demir, A. (2016). Örümcek mi böcek mi? 5. sınıf öğrencileri için argümantasyon tabanlı sınıflandırma etkinliği. Araştırma Temelli Etkinlik Dergisi (ATED), 6(1), 1-9. Okumuş , S. (2012). Maddenin halleri ve ısı ünitesinin bilimsel tartışma (argümantasyon) modeli ile öğretiminin öğrenci başarısına ve anlama düzeylerine etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Trabzon. Öğreten, B. ve Uluçınar Sağır, Ş. (2014). Argümantasyona dayalı fen öğretiminin etkililiğinin incelenmesi. Türk Fen Eğitimi Dergisi, 11(1), 75-100. doi: 10.12973/tused.10104a Özkara, D. (2011). Basınç konusunun 8. sınıf öğrencilerine bilimsel argümantasyona dayalı etkinlikler ile öğretilmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Adıyaman Üniversitesi, Adıyaman. Şahin, E. (2016). Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme yaklaşımının (ATBÖ) üstün yetenekli öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına, üstbiliş ve eleştirel düşünme becerilerine etkisi. Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Şahin, F., ve Hacıoğlu, Y. (2010). Bilimsel tartışma destekli örnek olayların 8. Sınıf öğrencilerinin “kalıtım” konusunda kavram öğrenmelerine ve okuduğunu anlama becerilerine etkisi. International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, 11-13 November, pp., 269-276, Antalya. Şahintürk, G. Y. (2014). Sosyo-bilimsel tartışma destekli fen etkinliklerinin 8. Sınıf öğrencilerinin yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları ile ilgili farkındalıkları ve içerik bilgisi gelişimine etkisinin incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Tekeli, A. (2009). Argümantasyon odaklı sınıf ortamının öğrencilerin asit baz konusundaki kavramsal değişimlerine ve bilimin doğasını kavramalarına etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara. Ulu, C., ve Bayram, H. (2015). Yaparak yazarak bilim öğrenme yaklaşımına dayalı öğretim yönteminin bilimsel süreç becerilerine etkisi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (HU Journal of Education), 30(1), 282-298. Uluay, G. (2012). İlköğretim 7. sınıf fen ve teknolji dersi kuvvet ve hareket konusunun öğretiminde bilimsel tartışma (Argümantasyon) Odaklı Öğretim Yönteminin öğrenci başarısına etkisinin incelenmesi . Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Kastamonu Üniversitesi, Kastamonu. Uluçınar Sağır, Ş. (2008). Fen bilgisi dersinde bilimsel tartısma odaklı ögretimin etkililiginin incelenmesi (Doktora Tezi). Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara. Uluçınar-Sağır, Ş. ve Kılıç, Z. (2013). İlköğretım Öğrencilerinin Bilimin Doğasını Anlama Düzeylerine Bilimsel Tartışma Odaklı Öğretimin Etkisi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi [H. U. Journal of Education] 44: 308-318 Yeşildağ Hasançebi, F. ve Günel, M. (2013). Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme yaklaşımının dezavantajlı öğrencilerin fen bilgisi başarılarına etkisi. İlköğretim Online, 12(4), 1056-1073. 286 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Review of the Argumentation Oriented Studies in Conducted in Turkey between 2007 and 2017 for Science Teaching of Primary School Students Kevser BOZKURT Necmettin Erbakan University Neslihan BOYUNSUZ Necmettin Erbakan University S. Ahmet KIRAY Necmettin Erbakan University Abstract: This survey is carried out on a child who is a second grade student and has a diagnosis of atypical autism. The survey is maintained during 2017-2018 education year. In that survey, it is aimed that the student should be taught by starting from counting step that what addition and subtraction perceptibly mean with successively regulated educational inventions and then, addition and subtraction that is perceptibly learned should be gained abstractly. The student should learn how to add and subtract double-digit numbers without taking help. The survey is designed as an action search from qualitative research methods. According to this method, previously it is specified the source of problems that the student had on relevant learning outcomes and then, it is prepared a need based action plan. Applied action is continually evaluated within the process and necessary adjustments are applied. Survey data are obtained via observation and interview. According to the findings, when the student uses concrete examples, he learns the real meaning of addition and subtraction. It is observed that the student succeed to add and subtract digit and double-digit numbers by using symbol and numbers. However, due to the fact that schools are closed because of the end of term the student couldn’t have done the activities like decimal digit numbers in subtraction. It is observed that when learning outcomes that are gained at school are supported, it improves motivation and it is well received with social conditions. To other researchers, it is suggested to do new surveys with students from different grades and qualities. To teachers, it is suggested to try different activities with different learning students and to use social reinforcers. Keywords: Autism, Action research, Addition, Subtraction İlkokul 2. Sınıfta Öğrenim Gören Otizmli Bir Öğrenci İle Toplama Ve Çıkarma İşlemi Öğrenmesine Yönelik Eylem Araştırması Özet: Bu araştırma atipik otizm tanısı almış, ilkokul 2.sınıfta öğrenim gören bir öğrenci üzerinde yürütülmüştür. Araştırma 2017-2018 eğitim öğretim yılı boyunca sürdürülmüştür. Bu araştırmada öğrencinin sayı sayma basamağından başlanarak art arda düzenlenmiş eğitim müdahaleleri ile önce toplama ve çıkarma işleminin somut olarak ne ifade ettiğinin öğretilmesi daha sonra da somut olarak öğrenilen toplama ve çıkarma işlemlerinin sembolik ve soyut boyutta kazandırılması, öğrencinin yardım almaksızın iki haneli iki sayıyı toplamayı veya çıkarmayı öğrenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma, nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden eylem araştırması olarak tasarlanmıştır. Bu yönteme göre önce öğrencinin söz konusu kazanımlarda yaşadığı sorunun kaynağı belirlenmiş ve öğrencinin ihtiyaçlarına özgü bir eylem planı hazırlanmıştır. Uygulanan eylem süreç içerisinde sürekli değerlendirilmiş ve gerekli düzeltmeler uygulanmıştır. Araştırmanın verileri gözlem ve görüşme yöntemiyle elde edilmiştir. Bulgulara göre öğrenci, somut örnekler kullanıldığında toplama ve çıkarma işlemlerinin gerçek hayattaki anlamını öğrenmiştir. Sembol ve sayılar kullanarak toplama işleminde tek ve iki haneli sayıları zorlanmadan toplamayı; çıkarma işleminde de tek ve iki haneli sayılarla çıkarma yapmayı başardığı gözlenmiştir. Fakat eğitim öğretim yılının sona ermesi üzerine çıkarma işleminde onluk bozma gerektiren etkinlikler yaptırılamamıştır. Öğrencinin okulda öğrenmekte olduğu kazanımların, araştırma kapsamında yapılan etkinliklerle desteklenmesinin öğrenciye motivasyon kattığı ve yapılan bu etkinliklerle öğrencinin sosyal uyaranlara karşı olumlu tepkiler verdiği de gözlenmiştir. Diğer araştırmacılara; ilköğretimin farklı seviyelerindeki veya farklı özelliklerdeki öğrencilerle yeni araştırmalar yapmaları önerilmektedir. Öğretmenler için ise farklı öğrenen öğrenciler için farklı etkinlikler denemeleri, sosyal yönden uyaran pekiştireçleri kullanmaları önerilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Otizm, Eylem araştırması(action research), Toplama işlemi, Çıkarma işlemi 287 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Giriş Otizm çocukluk çağında ortaya çıkan ve bireyi hayat boyu etkileyen bir farklılıktır. Bu farklılık iletişimde nitel bozulma, sosyal etkiletişimde nitel bozulma, ilgi ve etkinliklerde sınırlı ve yineleyici davranışlara sahip olma alanlarında kendini gösterdiği için (Atasoy, 2008) bireylerin okul ve öğrenme yaşamını doğrudan etkilemektedir. Özellikle soyut kavramlarla iç içe olan matematik dersinde akranlarından daha farklı ve kendi zihinsel ihtiyaçlarına göre tasarlanmış öğretim faaliyetlerine gereksinimleri vardır. (Borich, 2017) Literatüre baktığımızda Otizmli öğrencilerin eğitimi için yapılmış çalışmalar bulunmaktadır. 1973 yılında Kramer ve Krug tarafından tüm özel gereksinimi olan çocuklar için (Touch Math) nokta belirleme tekniği uygulanmıştır. Nokta belirleme tekniği her sayının kendi değerinde nokta içermesi ve öğrencinin bu noktalara dokunarak sayması sonucu sayıyla sayının değerini ilişkilendirmesi esasına dayanmaktadır. Nuhoğlu ve Eliçin (2013) bu tekniği inceleyen çalışmalarında otizmli bireyler ile yapılan araştırmalara yer vermiş ve bu öğrencilerin büyük bölümünün toplama, çıkarma işlemlerini öğrendiğini bir kısmının ise öğrenemediğini aktarmıştır. Alanyazında otizmli çocukların matematik öğrenimine yönelik çok az sayıda araştırma bulunmuştur. Otizmli çocukların matematik öğrenimini araştıran Tok ve Berk (2014) çalışmalarında otizmli öğrencilerin matematik alanında daha çok ritmik sayma becerilerinde başarılı olduğunu toplama ve çıkarma işlemlerinin ikinci sırada öğrenildiğini saptamıştır. Yine aynı çalışmada otizmli öğrencilerin ileri matematik becerilerinde başarı oranının çok düştüğünü belirtmiştir. Otizmli çocuklar için en uygun olanı en az kısıtlanmış eğitim alanı ilkesince akranlarıyla birlikte eğitim almasıdır. Bu öğrencilerin akademik becerileri öğrenmesini kolaylaştıracak ve hızlandıracak müdahale programlarının geliştirilmesi son derece önemlidir (Töret, Aykut, Babacan ve Özkubat, 2015). Bu sebeplerle bireysel farklılık gösteren bütün öğrenciler gibi kendilerine özel hazırlanan ve öğrenciyi akademik başarı merdiveninde bulunduğu basamaktan bir üst basamağa çıkaracak farklılaştırılmış bir öğretim planı uygulanmalıdır (Borich, 2017). Matematik dersi öğretim programında programın öğrenme alanları tanıtılırken doğal sayılar alt öğrenme alanında kazanımlar rakam ve sayıların öğrenilmesinden sonra 20’ye kadar olan sayıların basamakları, parça-bütün ilişkisi içinde ele alınmaktadır. Toplama işlemi 1.sınıfta başlamakta ve 2. Sınıfta sayı basamakları ile birlikte öğrenilmesi öngörülmektedir (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı [MEB], 2018).Temel matematik becerilerinin tam olarak öğrenilmemesi daha üst sınıflardaki becerilerin öğrenilmesini de engelleyeceğinden öğrencinin okula başladığı günden itibaren desteklenmesi gerekmektedir. Öğrencinin zaman ilerledikçe akranlarıyla arasındaki akademik başarı yönünden fark artacak bu da öğrencinin matematiğe karşı olumsuz tutum geliştirmesine de neden olabilecektir (MEB, 2018). Bu araştırmada otizmli bir öğrencinin sayı sayma basamağından başlanarak art arda düzenlenmiş eğitim müdahaleleri ile önce toplama ve çıkarma işleminin somut olarak ne ifade ettiğinin öğretilmesi daha sonra da somut olarak öğrenilen toplama ve çıkarma işlemlerinin sembolik ve soyut boyutta kazandırılması, öğrencinin yardım almaksızın iki haneli iki sayıyı toplamayı veya çıkarmayı öğrenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Yöntem Bu araştırma sınıf öğretmeni işbirliğinde onun otizm spektrum bozukluk tanısı almış bir öğrencisi üzerinde uygulanan bir eylem araştırmasıdır. Eylem araştırması için bir öğretim üyesi “Fen ve Matematik Alanlar Eğitiminde Nitel Araştırmalar” yüksek lisans dersi kapsamında rehberlik etmiştir. Eylem araştırmasında uygulama öğretmen tarafından ya da çift taraflı işbirliği kurulacak dışardan bir araştırmacı tarafından da yapılabilir. Eylem araştırmaları öğrenme sürecini anlamaya yönelik sistemli ve planlı bir yöntemdir. Uygulama esnasında araştırmacı doğrudan verilere ulaşacağından esnek ve geliştirilebilir bir süreçtir. Eylem araştırmalarında işbirliği kaçınılmaz olduğu için ikna edici ve inandırıcıdır (Özpınar, 2016). Ancak doğası gereği nitel araştırmalarda genelleme bir sınırlılıktır ve gelecekte benzer özellik gösterecek durumlar için fikir verebilmesi mümkün olmakla birlikte evreni temsil etmemektedir. (Büyüköztürk, Kılıç Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz ve Demirel, 2017) Eğitim müdahalelerinin anında düzeltilip geliştirilebilmesi de eylem araştırması yöntemi seçilmesinin sebeplerindendir. 288 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Katılımcılar Araştırma, Konya’nın ilçe mahallelerinden bir ilkokulda 2. Sınıfta öğrenim gören atipik otizm tanısı almış bir öğrenci ile yürütülmüştür. Öğrencinin sınıf düzeyinden farklı öğrenme seviyesine sahip olması, sınıf öğretmeninin her türlü işbirliğine açık olduğunu belirtmesi sebebiyle bu araştırmanın yapılmasına karar verilmiştir. Aşağıda öğrencinin araştırma için gerekli özellikleri açıklanmıştır. Öğrenci 3 yaşında atipik otizm tanısı almış, konuşmaya 4 yaşından itibaren başlamış ve iletişimde halen yetersizdir. Grup ve sınıf ortamına uyum sağlamakta zorluk çekmekte, çeşitli takıntıları nedeniyle derse adapte olamama problemleri yaşamaktadır. İlkokuldan önce toplam üç yıl kreş ve anaokulu eğitimi almıştır. İletişim konusunda istekli değildir ve somut olarak ilgisini çekmeyen bir konuşmayı dinleyememektedir. Sınıf içerisinde ve okul ortamında sessiz ve dikkat çekmeyen bir öğrencidir. Birinci sınıfta sayı sayma ve eşleme kazanımlarını kazanmış olmakla birlikte çok çabuk unutmakta ve tekrara ihtiyaç duymaktadır. Sınıf arkadaşları ile rekabet havasına girmemekte yeni bir şey öğrendiğinde bunu kendiliğinden paylaşma ihtiyacı da hissetmemektedir. Hatta zaman zaman öğrenmediği sanılan bir bilgiyi aslında öğrendiği ama göstermek istemediği de olabilmektedir. Öğretmen Meslekte 15 yıl tecrübeli, işbirliğine açık sınıf öğretmenidir. Daha önce otizmli bir öğrencisi olmamıştır. Araştırma için yapılacak eylem planının oluşturulmasında rehberlik etmiştir. Araştırma boyunca 1. Araştırmacı ile haftalık 10 dakika görüşerek öğrencinin gelişimi ile ilgili bilgi alışverişinde bulunmuştur. Eylemin planlanması ve uygulanması aşamalarında işbirliği yapmıştır. Öğrencinin okul içindeki akademik ve sosyal ilerleyişini izleyerek araştırmacıya veri sağlamıştır. 1.Araştırmacı, Fen bilimleri öğretmenliği lisans mezunudur ve bu alanda yüksek lisans eğitimi almaktadır. Araştırmaya temel oluşturan eylemin yürütülmesini ve öğrenciden okul dışında veri toplanmasını üstlenmiştir.. 2.Araştırmacı, Fen bilimleri öğretmenliği lisans mezunudur ve alanında yüksek lisans eğitimi almaktadır. Araştırmaya raporlamada ve veri analizinde katkı sunmuştur. Süreç 2017- 2018 eğitim öğretim yılında 2. Sınıfta öğrenim gören atipik otizmli öğrenci ile çalışılmıştır. Öğrenci birinci sınıfta toplama işlemine ait “Nesne sayısı 20’ye kadar (20 dâhil) olan bir topluluktaki nesnelerin sayısını belirler ve bu sayıyı rakamla yazar.” ve “Nesne sayıları 20’den az olan iki gruptaki nesneleri birebir eşler ve grupların nesne sayılarını karşılaştırır.”(MEB, 2018) kazanımlarını kısmen kazanmıştır. Sayıları doğru bir sırayla saymakta ama nesne miktarları ile sayılar arasında ilişki kuramamaktadır. Nesne sayılarını da az veya çok olarak niteleyememekte sayıdan bağımsız olarak görünüşe göre az veya çok diyebilmektedir. Araştırmacılar öğrencinin durumu ile ilgili bilgi sahibi olmak için gözlem yapmış ve öğretmen ile görüşmüştür. Ayrıca öğrencinin sınıf içinde ders esnasında öğretmen tarafından çekilmiş videoları da incelenmiştir. Buna göre öğrenci sınıf ortamına öğrenme ortamı anlamında uyum sağlayamamaktadır. Her öğrencide doğal olarak oluşan başarma ve rekabet isteği de oluşmamaktadır. Öğrenci bireysel ihtiyaçları dikkate alınarak hazırlanmış bir destek öğretim programına ihtiyaç duymaktadır. Öğrencinin sınıf arkadaşlarından farklı bir tekniğe ihtiyaç duyması sınıf öğretmeni görüşü ve gözlem sonuçlarından anlaşılması nedeniyle uygulanacak destek eğitim için öğretmen ile görüşülerek yapılabilecekler belirlenmiştir. Buna göre temel problem öğrencinin iletişime kapalı olmasıdır ve yapılacak müdahalelerin öğrenciyi iyi tanıyan 1. Araştırmacı tarafından, öğretmen işbirliği ile yapılması uygundur. Diğer problem öğrencinin sayılar ve işlemler konularının sembolik mantık düzeyine erişememiş olması nedeniyle kazanımların öğrenci zihninde anlamlı bir karşılık bulamamasıdır. Öğrencinin temel matematik işlemlerini kavrayabilmesi için işlemi başta somut olarak yapması ve aşama aşama sembolleştirmesi uygun olacaktır. Bunun için öğretmen rehberliğinde araştırmacılar tarafından aşamaları aşağıda belirtilen eylem planı hazırlanmıştır. 289 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Somut nesnelerle çalışılan kısım i. ii. iii. iv. Nesneleri birebir eşleyerek 20’ye kadar sayma etkinlikleri. 5’ten küçük iki sayıyı temsil eden iki farklı kalem kümesi hazırlama 5’ten küçük iki sayıyı temsil eden kalem kümesini birleştirip sayma etkinliği Bir kalem kümesi hazırlama ve bu kümeye 2,3,4 kalem ekleyerek/eksilterek sonucu sayma Soyut ve sembolik kısım i. ii. iii. iv. v. Toplama/çıkarma işlemini sayı ve semboller kullanarak yazma etkinliği 5’ten küçük sayıları yazarak balon tekniğiyle toplama/çıkarma etkinliği 5’ten büyük tek haneli sayılarda toplama/çıkarma etkinliği İki haneli iki sayıyı (eldesiz) toplama ve onluk bozmasız çıkarma etkinliği İki haneli iki sayıyı eldeli toplama etkinliği Öğrencinin etkinliklere direnç göstermemesi için otizmli çocukların takıntı olarak değerlendirilen aynı eylemi aynı şekilde yapma hassasiyetinden faydalanılarak etkinlikler için saat belirlendi, buna göre okul çıkışında saat 19:00da etkinliklerin yapılması kararlaştırıldı. Böylece öğrenci etkinlik saatini doğal akışın parçası olarak gördüğünden direnç göstermedi. Öğrencinin yaşı da göz önünde bulundurularak etkinliklerin yarım saat olması maksimum 40 dakikayı aşmamasına karar verildi. Öğretmen ve araştırmacı haftada bir görüşerek genel değerlendirmelerde ve etkinliklerde dikkate alınması gerekenler hakkında fikir alışverişinde bulundu. Eylem Planının Uygulanması Nesneleri birebir eşleyerek 20’ye kadar sayma Bu etkinlik için tek tek sayılabilecek kalem, ahşap küp, ataç gibi küçük nesneler kullanıldı. Öğrenciye bir miktar nesne verilerek sayması istendi. Öğrencinin birer birer sayması ve saydığı nesneleri birleştirip bir küme oluşturması beklendi. Bazen iki bazen bir nesnenin alınması üzerine araştırmacı öğrencinin elini tutup yönlendirerek ve yüksek sesle sayarak doğru sayma biçimine ulaşıldı. Son söylenen sayının nesnenin sayısı olduğu vurgulandı. Bu etkinlik için günde 10-15 sayma yaptırıldı ve bir hafta süre ayrıldı. 5’ten küçük sayıları temsil eden kalem kümesi hazırlama Öğrencinin verilen sayıda kalemi sayıp önüne koyması istendi. Sayıların küçük olmasına ve öğrenci sayarken araştırmacının da yüksek sesle eşlik etmesine dikkat edildi. Son sayı daima farklı bir ton ve vurguyla söylendi. Doğru şekilde sayılarak oluşturulan her kalem kümesi için sözlü pekiştireç verilerek başarma isteği uyandırılması da hedeflendi. Bu etkinlik için hatasız sayma yapılana kadar devam edildi. Beşten küçük iki sayıyı temsil eden kalem kümesini birleştirip sayma etkinliği Toplamları 10’u geçmeyecek iki kalem kümesi oluşturuldu. Öğrenciden bu kümeleri sayarak kaçar kalemden oluştuğunu belirlemesi istendi. Daha sonra bu iki küme birleştirilerek yeni bir küme oluşturuldu öğrenciye toplam kaç kalem oldu say bakalım şeklinde komut verildi. Öğrenci oluşan yeni kümeyi sayarak belirledi. Bu etkinliğin temel hedefi kümeleri birleştirme işleminin daha büyük bir kümeyi oluşturduğunun, toplam kelimesinin kullandırılması ile toplama işleminin somut dünyada ne anlama geldiğinin fark ettirilmesidir. Bu etkinlik için günde iki kutu boya kalemi kullanıldı. Kalemlerin toplamanın temel noktası olan aynı tür olmasına dikkat edildi. Günde yaklaşık 10 toplama yaptırıldı. Öğrenci, yönergeleri hatırlatmaya ihtiyaç duymadan kendisi takip edinceye kadar devam edildi. Bir kalem kümesi hazırlama ve bu kümeye 2, 3, 4 kalem ekleme/eksiltme etkinliği Öğrenciden küçük sayılardan başlayarak bir kalem kümesi hazırlaması istendi. Hazırlanan kümeye eklemesi için 2 kalem araştırmacı tarafından gösterildi. Öğrenciden bu iki kalemi sayarak alması ve elindeki kümeye eklemesi istendi. Toplam kalem sayısını bulması istendi. Bu etkinliğin temel hedefi eklenen kalemleri kümeye 7, 8 diye sayarak eklemesi ve her defasında baştan sayma yapmamasıdır. Öğrencinin bunu fark etmesi için kendiliğinden yapana kadar destek verildi. Bu beceri kazanıldığında oluşturduğu kümeden 1, 2, 3 kalem çıkarması istendi. “İki kalem çıkar” şeklinde söylenip vurgulanarak eksiltme işleminin çıkarma işlemi olduğu ve kümenin azaldığı hissettirilmeye çalışıldı. 290 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Toplama/çıkarma işlemini sayı ve semboller kullanarak yazma Verilen kalem kümelerini sayarak bulan öğrenciden bulduğu sayıları defterine alt alta yazması ve toplama işleminin sembolünü kullanması istendi. Öğrencinin kendiliğinden ve sözlü yönergeye ihtiyaç duymadan yapana kadar gösterip yaptırma tekniğiyle destek verilmeye devam edildi. Toplama işleminde aşinalık oluştuktan sonra kümeden kalem eksilterek ilk küme, eksiltilen kalem sayısı ve kalan kalem sayısı çıkarma işlemine uygun olarak sembolle gösterildi. Sayı ve sembolleri doğru olarak kullanma hedefi gerçekleştirildikten sonra birkaç işlemde toplam/fark sayı da sayılarak yerine yazıldı. Bu etkinlik için bir hafta süre ayrıldı. 5’ten küçük sayıları yazarak balon tekniğiyle toplama/çıkarma etkinliği Bu etkinliğin temel hedefi öğrencinin sadece kalem ve kâğıt kullanarak toplama/çıkarma işlemini tamamlayabilmesidir. Öğrenciye bir sayfada 30 işlem bulunan etkinlik kâğıtları verildi. Toplamda sonucun 10’u geçmemesine dikkat edildi. Öğrenciden toplanan sayı kadar küçük daire çizmesi istendi. Aynı şekilde diğer toplanan için de bir alt satıra küçük daireler çizdi. Toplamı bulmak için çizdiği bütün daireleri kalemle işaretleyerek saydı. Kalemle işaretlemesi aynı daireyi birden fazla saymasını engelledi ve kolay bir sayma olmasını sağladı. Etkinlik boyunca “balonları topla bakalım” şeklinde yönerge verilerek öğrencinin daha önce kalem kümeleriyle yaptığı işlem olduğunu fark etmesine çalışıldı. Çıkarma işlemi için üstteki sayı kadar balon çizildi alttaki sayı kadar balon X ile hayali patlatıldı. Kalan balon sayılarak yerine yazıldı. Aynı sayfada çoğunlukla toplama işlemi az sayıda çıkarma işlemi veya çoğunluk çıkarma işlemi az sayıda toplama işlemi ile çalışılarak öğrencinin bir işleme odaklanması ve diğer işlemi de tekrar etmesi amaçlandı. Bu çalışmalara hafta içi her gün devam edildi ve bir seferde 30 işlem yaptırılarak pekişmesi sağlandı. Olumsuz tutum oluşmaması için günde yarım saat kuralına devam edildi. Bu etkinlik için 1 ay süre verildi. 5’ten büyük tek haneli sayılarda toplama/çıkarma etkinliği Bir önceki etkinlikte her iki toplananın da dairelerle temsil edilmesi çalışma kâğıdında karışıklığa neden oldu ayrıca öğrencinin sayılardan birini akılda tutup diğerini eklemesi toplama mantığına daha uygun olduğundan toplanan sayılardan birinin yerine daire çizilip diğerinin üstüne sayılması etkinliğine geçildi. Bunun için toplamları 10’dan fazla olabilecek tek haneli sayılardan oluşan toplama işlemi etkinlik kâğıtları hazırlandı. İlk toplanan için daireler çizdirilip ikinci toplananın üzerine sayılması istendi. Gösterip yaptırma tekniğiyle öğrenci kendiliğinden yapana kadar desteklendi. Bu etkinliğin temel hedefi toplama işlemini öğrenci için kolaylaştırmak ve sadece sayarak toplama yapabilmesini sağlamaktır. Çıkarma işlemlerine bir önceki etkinlikteki gibi devam edildi. Öğrencinin bu etkinlikte yeterlik kazanması ve balon çizmekten sıkılmaya başlaması üzerine el parmaklarını sayarak etkinliğe devam edildi. Buna göre toplama işlemi için toplananlardan biri kadar parmak açılır ve diğerinin üstüne sayılır. Çıkarma işleminde ise eksilen kadar parmak açılır ve çıkan sayı kadar parmak kapatılır, açık kalan parmaklar sayılarak kalan yazılır. Öğrenci daire çizdiğinde daha az hata yapmıştır ama parmak hesabı yapması da işlem yapma hızını artırarak dersten sıkılmasını engellemiştir. İki haneli iki sayıyı eldesiz toplama ve çıkarma etkinliği Tek haneli sayılarda toplama tamamlandıktan sonra iki haneli sayılara geçildi. Sayıların alt alta yazılması özellikle vurgulandı. Öğrenci daha önce onlar basamağı birler basamağı kavramlarını öğrenmişti. Sayılar toplanırken renkli kalemle alt alta denk gelen birler basamakları daire içine alınarak önce birler basamağının toplanması istendi. Daha sonra onlar basamakları işaretlenerek bu iki sayının toplanması istendi. Sonuçların toplanan sayıların hemen altına yazılması vurgulandı. Bu etkinlik için de araştırmacı tarafından öğrenci yönergeye ihtiyaç duymadan yapabilecek duruma gelinceye kadar basamakları gösterme-işaretleme ile sözlü destek verildi. Eldeli toplamaya geçmeden önce öğrencinin bu aşamayı başarması beklendi. Yaklaşık iki ay süren etkinlik boyunca öğrencinin daha önce kullandığı daire çizme tekniğinden ve zaman zaman parmak saymadan faydalandığı görüldü. Öğrenci herhangi bir teknik için zorlanmadı ama iki sayıdan birini diğerinin üstüne sayması, basamakları alt alta toplaması ve toplamı yerine yazması noktalarına dikkat edildi. Çıkarma işleminde eksilen ve çıkan sayı iki haneli ama çıkarma işleminde onluk bozmaya gerek olmayan sayılar seçildi. Öğrenci toplama işleminde olduğu gibi, balon tekniği ve parmak hesabından da faydalanarak birler basamağında çıkarma yaptıktan sonra onlar basamağında çıkarma yaparak yerine yazdı. 291 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey İki haneli iki sayıyı eldeli toplama etkinliği Toplanan sayılardan birler basamağındaki sayıların toplamının 10’u bulması veya geçmesi eldeli toplama işlemidir. Öğrenci daha önce bulduğu toplamı doğrudan basamak yerine yazıyordu fakat eldeli toplamada yeni bir teknik kullanıldı. Birler basamaklarının toplanmasıyla elde edilen toplamın iki haneli olması durumunda birler basamağı yazılırken onlar basamağı toplanan sayıların onlar basamağının üzerine yazıldı. Onlar basamakları toplanırken sonradan yazılan elde için de bir daire çizildi ve sayarak eklendi. Öğrencinin işlemi tamamlayabilmesi için günlük etkinlikler sırasında destek verilmeye ve yeri geldikçe birler onlar hatırlatmalarına devam edildi. Öğrencinin kararsız kaldığı noktalarda kısa bir süre bekleme süresi verilerek kendi kendine başarması için fırsat tanındı. Bu etkinliğin temel hedefi öğrencinin bağımsız ve destek almadan toplama işlemini tamamlayabilmesidir. Öğrenci desteksiz tamamladığı her işlem için aferin, çok akıllısın gibi sözlü pekiştireçlerle cesaretlendirilmiştir. Sonuç Öğrencide uygulanan eylem sonucunda ulaşılan sonuçlar bu bölümde anlatılmıştır.Öğrenci toplama işleminde tek ve iki haneli sayıları zorlanmadan toplamayı; çıkarma işleminde de tek ve iki haneli sayılarla çıkarma yapm ayı başarmıştır. Toplama işlemini nesneleri bir araya getirme ve çıkarma işlemini de nesnelerin bir kısmını çıkarıp atma eylemleri ile ilişkilendirmiş böylece verilen işlemin somut dünyada ne anlama geldiğini kavramıştır. Toplama işleminde eldeli sonuç olduğunda farketmiş ve eldeyi onluklar hanesine yazmayı başarmıştır. Bunu dönem sonunda sınıf öğretmeniyle yapılan görüşmede öğretmen de ifade etmiştir. “Matematikte de bazı öğrencilerden ilerde ama biraz daha toplama çıkarma ile çok büyük problemimiz yok ama çarpma bölme ile biraz problemliyiz onu da üçüncü sınıfta aşacağını düşünüyorum. “ “Eldeli toplamayı şöyle biraz üzerinde durursam ilk örnekte biraz daha üzerinde durursam ondan sonra açılıyordu ilk etapta yapamasa bile tahtaya kaldırıp üç örnek çözdürüyorsam birincide biraz takılsa da ikinci ve üçüncüleri yapıyordu” Öğrencinin destek eylem planı tamamlandıktan sonra zaman zaman kısa hatırlatmalara ihtiyaç duymaya devam ettiği bir kere hatırlatma yapıldıktan sonra aynı oturumdaki diğer işlemleri desteğe ihtiyaç duymadan yapabildiği gözlenmiştir. Öğrencinin etkinlikler sırasında aynı etkinliği uzun süre yapmaktan sıkılması ama verilen görevi bitirme sorumluluğunu hissetmesi nedeniyle etkinlikler için kendine kolay gelen yöntemleri kendiliğinden keşfettiği ve uyguladığı gözlenmiştir. Her soru için daireler çizmekten sıkılan öğrenci, genelde etkinlik sonlarına doğru kendine kolay gelen parmak sayma yöntemini kullanmıştır. Bu da öğrencinin kendi öğrenmesinden sorumlu tutuldukça öğrenme biçiminin de etkilendiğini göstermektedir. Öğrencinin hem etkinlik sırasında hem de sınıfta tahtaya kalktığında verilen işlemleri doğru bir şekilde tamamladıkça derse karşı ilgisinin arttığı da öğretmen tarafından ifade edilmiştir. ”Şey var bilse de çekingenlik var tahtaya ilk çıktığında şey olmuyor oraya tam adapte olamıyor bildiği şeyleri bile çıkınca bir heyecana kapılıyor birinciyi ama yapıp öyle bir alkışlama var o alkışı seviyor mesela……..birincide alkışı aldı mı ondan sonra on tane örnek çözsen de ondan sonra gidiyor.” Öğrencinin doğru cevabı bulduğunda sınıf arkadaşları tarafından alkışlanması üzerine motive olması da dikkate alınması gereken bir sonuçtur. Otizmli öğrencilerin sanılanın aksine sosyal uyaranlara da duyarlı olduğunu göstermiştir. Öğrenci çıkarma işleminde onluk bozma gerektiren işlemleri henüz yapamamaktadır. Eğitim öğretim yılının sona ermesi üzerine onluk bozma etkinliği yaptırılmamıştır. Okulda normal derslerde onluk bozmalı çıkarma işlemleri de yapıldığı halde öğrencinin bu konuda başarı sağlayamaması ihtiyaçlarına uygun bireyselleştirilmiş eğitim planı gerektiğini doğrular niteliktedir. Tartışma ve Öneriler Otistik spektrum bozukluğu olan çocukların her birinin bu bozukluktan etkilenme derecesi ve etkilendiği alanlar birbirinden farklılık göstermektedir ( Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı,2016). Otistik çocukların genel özellikleri irdelendiğinde farklı gruplar oluşturabildikleri görülmektedir. Hiçbir otistik çocuk, otistik özellikleri yönünden birbirinin aynısı değildir. Fakat otistik özellikler yine de benzer temel özellikler gösterebilirler (Darıca, 2002). Otizm sosyal etkileşim, iletişim ve davranış sorunlarıyla kendini gösteren bir gelişimsel yetersizliktir. Uygun eğitsel düzenlemeler yapılmadığında takdirde otizmli bireylerin hem kendilerinin ve hem de çevrelerindekilerin 292 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey yaşamlarını her yönden olumsuz etkiler. Otistik öğrencilere gerekli eğitsel önlemler alındığındaysa pek çoğu bu sorundan büyük ölçüde kurtulmakta ve yaşamlarının geri kalanını tipik gelişim gösteren akranlarıyla ve toplumla kaynaşarak sürdürebilmektedir. ( Aslan, İftar ve Uzuner, 2009). Otistik çocukların eğitiminde etkili olacak öğretim yaklaşımları konusunda son yıllarda pek çok çalışma yapılmaktadır( Eren, Deniz ve Düzkantar, 2013). Otizmli çocukların matematiği öğrenmeye karşı tutumu otizmli olmayan diğer çocuklar gibi farklılık göstermektedir. Otizmli çocukların da bireysel farklılıkları göz önünde bulundurulursa matematik öğrenmeye karşı tutumları farklılaştığı görülmektedir (Tok ve Berk, 2014). Matematik becerileri günlük yaşamda sıklıkla karşılaşılan ve diğer akademik becerilerin ediniminde önemli rol oynayan bir beceri öğretim alanıdır. Otizmli çocukların matematiğin temel kavram ve becerilerini öğrenmesinde güçlükler yaşamakta, bunun sonucu olarak da yeterli başarıyı sergileyememektedirler. Bu güçlüklerden birinin nedeni matematikte yer alan kavram ve becerilerin soyut özellik göstermesidir. Matematik kavram ve becerilerinin öğretiminde öncelikle somut etkinliklere yer verilmesi ve sonrasında soyuta doğru gidilmesi önemli olmaktadır (Yıkmış, 2016). Araştırma kapsamında elde edilen sonuçlar incelendiğinde öğrenci üzerinde uygulanan eylem planındaki etkinliklerin işe yaradığını göstermektedir. Çalışmadan elde edilen verilere göre bu konuda yapılabilecek ileri araştırmalara yönelik şu önerilere yer verilebilir:  Eylem planında yer alan etkinlikler ilköğretimin farklı seviyelerindeki öğrenciler üzerinde denenebilir.  Eylem planında yer alan etkinliklerin matematik becerilerinin gelişiminde etkili olup olmadığı, farklı yöntemlerle karşılaştırarak araştırılabilir.  Bu etkinlikler bilgisayar, tablet ya da akıllı telefonlar üzerinde denenerek etkisi incelenebilir.  Bu araştırma bir katılımcıyla gerçekleştiği için, çalışmanın genellenebilirliği açısından benzer çalışmalar farklı özellikleri olan katılımcılarla yapılabilir.  Otizmli çocukların çarpma ve bölme işlemlerini öğrenmesine yönelik eylem planları hazırlanıp uygulanabilir.  Öğretmenler sınıflarında iletişimde ve sosyal etkiletişimde yetersiz öğrenciler için de “alkış”, “ aferin” gibi motive edici sosyal pekiştireçler kullanmalıdır.  Eğitim programlarında özel gereksinimli öğrenciler için daha fazla etkinlik örnekleri bulunmalıdır. Kaynaklar Atasoy, S. (2008). Yüksek fonksiyonlu otistik çocuklarda çeşitli bilişsel özellikler arasındaki ilişkilerin incelenmesi. (Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi). Ege Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir. Borich, G. D. (2017). Etkili öğretim yöntemleri Araştırma temelli uygulama. ( Çev. Ed. M. B. Acat). Nobel yayınları. Ankara. Büyüköztürk, Ş. Kılıç Çakmak, E. Akgün, ÖA. Karadeniz, Ş. ve Demirel, F. (2017). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemleri. Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Eren B, Deniz J. ve Düzkantar A.(2013). Orff Yaklaşımına Göre Hazırlanan Müzik Etkinlikleri İçinde İpucunun Giderek Azaltılması Yöntemi ile Yapılan Gömülü Öğretimin Otistik Çocuklara Kavram Öğretmedeki Etkililiği. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 13(3) ,1863-1887. Güleç Aslan Y. Kırcaali İftar G. ve Uzuner Y. (2009), Otistik Çocuklar İçin Davranışsal Eğitim Programı (OÇİDEP) Ev Uygulamasının Bir Çocukla İncelenmesi, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 10 (1), 1-25 MEB. (2018). Matematik dersi Öğretim programı (ilkokul ve ortaokul 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ve 8. Sınıflar). Ankara: Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı. Milli eğitim bakanlığı, (2016). Çocuk Gelişimi Ve Eğitimi, Otizm Spektrum Bozukluğu modülü, Ankara Darıca N. (2002). Otistik Çocukların Eğitiminde Aile El Kitabı, Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, Ankara Nuhoğlu, H. ve Eliçin, Ö. (2013). Nokta Belirleme Tekniğinin (Touch Math) Matematik Becerilerinin Öğretiminde Kullanımı. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 14(1) 2136. Özpınar, İ. (2016). Eylem araştırması. M. Metin (Ed.) Kuramdan uygulamaya eğitimde bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri (s.441-467) Ankara: Pegem Akademi Tok H. ve Berk S. (2014), Otizmli Çocuklarda Matematik Öğretiminde Karşılaşılan Güçlükler, Asya Öğretim Dergisi, 2(1(ÖZEL)), 157-171 Töret, G. Aykut, Ç. Babacan, A. Özkubat, U. (2015). Otizm Spektrum Bozukluğu Olan Çocuklarda Akademik Başarı Düzeyleri Üzerinde Kendini İzleme Stratejisinin Etkisinin İncelenmesi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 16(2), 125-145 293 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Yıkmış, A. (2016). Zihin Engelli Çocuklara Temel Toplama İşlemlerinin Etkileşim Ünitesi İle Öğretimi. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 16(2), 676-697. 294 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey The Lexical Status of the Basic Morphemes Constituting the Verbs in Arabic Among Regular and Dyslexic Native Readers in the Age Group of 13-17: A Developmental Model Haneen WATTAD Haifa University Keywords: Morphology, Reading acquisition, Dyslexia, Mental lexicon Introduction Reading and learning studies in recent years, highlighted is the importance of morphological decomposing that leads to the expansion of the lexical and structural-morphological knowledge among both normal and dyslexic readers. This is despite the evidence about morphological deficits among dyslexic readers; studies show that those who have a reading disability also use morphological analysis as a strategy in the reading process. However, there are no sufficient studies in the field that examined the organization and the building of the mental lexicon among Arabic speaking dyslexics I n various age groups. Further, no research was conducted to examine the development of the mental lexicon's organization. Hypothesis and Methods The aim of the present work is to understand the developmental model of organizing and building a mental lexicon among regular and dyslexic readers: Grades sixth, eighth and tenth. 271 participants in three age groups made up the experiment: the group of dyslexic readers; the group of readers without the disability whose age is the age of the dyslexic group; the group of readers that are compared age-wise, who are one or two years younger than the dyslexic readers. The lexical status of the root morpheme and the pattern morpheme were examines using two priming paradigms: the masked priming; and the cross-modal immediate repetition task though which we examined the influence of auditory priming on the words identification process. The hypothesis underlying this research was that the roots and patterns of words are lexical entities which have a role in organizing the lexicon, and facilitate the access to a wide countenance of verbs among regular and dyslexic readers from ages of elementary school to high school. It was also assumed that the effect of visual morphological priming and effect of auditory morphological priming will be stronger among those who have a reading disability and among young readers (readers compared age-wise), compared to more skilled readers (compared chronological age-wise). This is because of the assumption that the lexicon of these readers contains representative morphemes and that their results differ from the group of readers without the disability due to a deficit in the initial processing stage. Further, it was assumed that the manner of representation of morphologically complex words and how to access them is similar among those who have a reading disability and readers without disability in reading Arabic. In addition, it was assumed that the pace of building a mental lexicon among dyslexic readers is slow, but the lexicon itself is similar to that of regular readers. Results and Discussion The findings confirmed the first hypothesis - that the roots are lexical beings that have a role in organizing the lexicon, and such beings are capable of facilitating lexical access to a wide countenance of verbs among normal readers and those who have a reading disability in different age ranges. It disproved the second hypothesis about the patterns, where it was found that they have no significant contribution to the identification and organization of words in the mental lexicon among both normal readers and those who have a reading disability in the three age groups. It was also found that regarding readers with dyslexia, the manner of representation of the words that are morphologically complex and accessing them is different compared to regular readers. The roots are lexical entities and contribute to the reading process, however such a contribution is different among dyslexic readers. 295 International Conference on Science and Education (IConSE), October 26 - 29, 2018 Antalya/Turkey Conclusion It was concluded that this difference is a result of a deficit in the initial processing process among these readers (in the specific modeling process, the orthographic process), and that they are apparently relying on other channels except the morphological one when identifying verbs, which emphasizes the uniqueness of the Arabic language, its morphological density and its phonological and lexical richness. This also explains the downside of relying on word patterns which are the phonological channel that develop throughout the reader's life. These findings supported the assumption that the deficit among those with the disability is in the initial processing process and that their mental lexicon also includes morphemes, mainly roots, and that they perform morphological analysis and make use of these morphemes to identify the word and read it. This was revealed using the cross-modal immediate repetition task which supported the assumption that the effect of the auditory morphological priming effect will be stronger among those with reading disability and among the younger readers (the control group of readers compared age-wise) compared to the more skilled readers (the control group of chronological compared age-wise). The research findings indicate that the pace of organizing and developing the mental lexicon is slower among dyslexic readers compared to regular readers, and leans more on the roots than on word patterns. References Abu-Rabia, S., & - Abu- Rabia, S., & Awwad, J.S. (2004). Morphological structures in visual word in word recognition: The case of Arabic. Journal of Research in Reading,27, 321-326. Abu-Rabia, S., & Saliba, F. (2008). The lexical status of basic Arabic verb morphemes among dyslexic children. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 13(2), 11 Boudelaa, S., & Marslen-Wilson, W. D. (2010). A Boudelaa, S., & Marslen-Wilson, W. (2001, August). The time-course of morphological, phonological and semantic processes in reading Modern Standard Arabic. In Carlisle, J. F. (2000). Awareness of the structure and meaning of morphologically complex words: Impact on reading. Reading and writ - 296 

Review of the Argumentation Oriented Studies in Conducted in Turkey between 2007 and 2017 for Science Teaching of Primary School Students Kevser BOZKURT Kemal İZCİ Necmettin Erbakan University Necmettin Erbakan University Abstract: The aim of the study is to review argumentation related studies published between 2007 and 2017 and conducted on Turkish primary school students’ science learning based on some predefined categories. By doing this, we think to provide a summary of findings for the related studies and show gaps in this area to provide suggestions for the related stakeholders. For this aim, we reviewed 43 studies in which 22 of them were master and doctoral thesis, 20 of them were journal articles and one of them was conference presentation. All of the studies were used argumentation as a way to support primary level students’ learning outcomes. During the analysis of the studies, descriptive analysis was used to provide a summary of the studies, and then thematic analysis was used to displayed information about the year, type, topic, aim, method, sampling, context, results and suggestions of the analyzed studies. The results of the analysis showed that studies mostly published during 2014 and 2016 years, mostly focused on 8th grade students, experimental design frequently preferred, and looked for the impact of argumentation on students’ academic achievement, attitudes, science process skills and nature of science conceptions. In general, the findings of the analyzed studies showed that argumentation approach increases students’ academic achievements, class participation and socialization of students. These studies also suggested conduction of more longitudinal studies and providing argumentation oriented professional development opportunities for teachers. Key words: Argumentation, Learning by doing and writing, Scientific discussion 2007-2017 Yılları Arasında Türkiye Kapsamında İlköğretim Öğrencilerine Yönelik Fen Eğitiminde Argümantasyon Odaklı Yapılan Çalışmaların Değerlendirilmesi Kevser BOZKURT Kemal İZCİ Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Özet: Bu araştırmanın amacı Türkiye kapsamında gerçekleştirilen ve ilköğretim öğrencilerinin fen eğitiminde argümantasyon yaklaşımını kullanan 2007-2017 yılları arasında yayınlanmış olan akademik çalışmaları farklı araştırma soruları ışığında incelemektir. Bu sayede, araştırmaların ortaya koydukları bulguların ve eksik kalan noktaların belirlenmesi ve ulaşılan sonuçlar temelinde ilgili paydaşlara tavsiyelerde bulunulması amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaçlar doğrultusunda 2007-2017 yılları arasında Türkiye’de gerçekleştirilen, örneklemini ilköğretim öğrencilerinden alan fen eğitiminde argümantasyon yaklaşımını kullanan erişime açık 22 tez, 20 makale ve 1 bildiri olmak üzere 43 çalışma farklı veri tabanlarından elde edilerek incelenmiştir. Çalışmaların incelenmesinde içerik analizi yöntemlerinden öncelikle betimsel içerik analizi kullanılarak genel bir özetleme yapılmış, daha sonra tematik içerik analizi (meta sentez) yapılarak çalışmalar yıl, tür, konu, amaç, yöntem, örneklem, bağlam, boylam, sonuç ve öneri yönleriyle incelenmiştir. Bulgulara bakıldığında; çalışmaların 2014 ve 2016 yıllarında yoğunlaştığı; daha çok 8. sınıf öğrencileri ile araştırma yapıldığı; deneysel desenlerin daha çok tercih edildiği, akademik başarı, tutum, bilimsel süreç becerileri ve bilimin doğası anlayışlarına etkisinin gibi yapıların yoğun çalışıldığı görülmüştür. Genel olarak argümantasyon odaklı seçilen stratejilerin öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına olumlu katkı sağladığı, sınıf içi etkileşimi artırdığı, sosyalleşmeyi ve buna bağlı becerileri geliştirdiği belirlenmiştir. Çalışmalarda diğer araştırmacılar için daha uzun süreli araştırmalar yapılması gerektiğinin ve öğretmenlere hizmet içi eğitimler verilmesinin önerildiği görülmüştür. Anahtar sözcükler: Argümantasyon, Yaparak yazarak bilim öğrenme, Bilimsel tartışma Giriş Fen bilimleri, doğası gereği bireylerin yaşamlarıyla sürekli iç içe olan ve günlük hayatta en çok uygulama alanı bulan yaşamın kendisini açıklamaya çalışan bir disiplindir. Sürekli bir uygulama alanı bulabilmesi, günlük hayatta karşılaşılan problemlerin çözümünde başvurulması, fen bilimlerini okul içinde bir ders olmaktan çıkarıp yaşamın bir parçası haline getirmektedir. Bundan dolayı ülkemizdeki son üç fen öğretim programlarının vizyonu da bireysel farklılıkları ne olursa olsun fen okuryazarı bireyler yetiştirmek olarak belirlenmiştir (Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı [MEB] 2006; 2013; 2017). Fen okuryazarı bireyler; bilimsel süreç becerilerine sahip, fen bilimlerine karşı olumlu tutum gösteren, çevreye karşı duyarlı, toplumsal sorunlarda çözüme katkı konusunda sorumluluk hisseden, işbirliğine açık, araştırıcı, sorgulayıcı, bilginin değişebileceğini bilen ve bilimsel çalışmaları takdir eden bireyler olarak tarif edilmektedir(MEB, 2013). Fen okuryazarı bireyler yetiştirmek için hazırlanan öğretim programlarını tarihsel sıralama ile incelediğimizde fen öğretmede temele alınan strateji yapılandırıcı yaklaşımdır. Son üç programda da yapılandırıcı yaklaşım öğretmenlere önerilirken programlarda adı geçen öğretim yöntemlerinde vurgu ve öne çıkarma anlamında bir değişim söz konusudur. MEB (2006) Fen öğretim programında öğrenci merkezli, küçük grup tartışmaları, drama, işbirliğine dayalı öğrenme, okul gezisi yöntem ve teknikleri öğrenci merkezli yöntem ve teknikler olarak gösterilmiştir. Öğretmenin rolü rehberlik eden, fırsat veren, teşvik eden, özenilen model insan olarak tanımlanmıştır. MEB’in (2013) fen bilimleri programına baktığımızda öğretmenlere problem-temelli, proje-tabanlı, işbirliğine dayalı öğrenme ve argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme etkili öğretim yöntemleri olarak önerilmiştir. Araştıran sorgulayan bireylerin tanımı yapılırken keşfetme ve deney kalıpları yeterli görülmemiş açıklama ve argüman oluşturma becerileri de eklenmiştir. MEB’in (2017) fen bilimleri programını incelediğimizde araştıran sorgulayan bireylere vurgu yapılırken öğrenme süreci keşfetme, sorgulama, argüman oluşturma ve ürün tasarlamayı kapsamaktadır. Dikkat edilirse fen öğretim programları gittikçe daha çok öğrenci merkezli stratejileri benimsemekte, öğrencileri öğrenme sürecine daha aktif katmanın yollarını aramakta, öğrenciyi kendi öğrenmesinin sorumluluğunu almaya zorlamakta, düşünmesini, eleştirmesini, reddetmesini, karar vermesini, ifade etmesini, sorgulamasını, tartışmasını, problem çözmesini istemektedir. Fen okuryazarlığının temelinde var olan araştırma sorgulama becerilerini öğrencilere aşılayabilmek için ortaya atılan ve son yıllarda oldukça geniş kabul gören öğretim yaklaşımlarından biri de argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmedir. Argümantasyon tartışma kökünden gelmekle birlikte Türkiye’de önceleri yaparak yazarak bilim öğrenme, bilimsel tartışma adı verilmiş ve son zamanlarda genel olarak argümantasyon veya argümantasyon-tabanlı bilim öğrenme olarak yer bulmuştur. Tartışma ortamında kullandığımız söylemler argüman iken; argümanlar etrafında yürütülen tartışma süreci argümantasyondur. Argümantasyon sürecinde öğrenciler; argüman oluşturur, oluşturdukları argümanları gerekçelendirir ve bağlantılar inşa ederler (Akçay, 2017). Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımıyla ilgili temel esasları 1958 yılında Toulmin ortaya koymuştur. Toulmin’e göre tartışma; Sosyal bir anlam oluşturma çabasıdır, eleştirel akıl yürütmeyi temele alır. Etkileşimli ve dinamik bir süreçtir, iddialar değişebilir ve sürekli yeni argümanlar üretilir. Desteklenen iddialar bütünüdür. Neden-sonuç ilişkisinin ötesinde, iddia, veri, garanti, reddeden, destek, niteleyen öğeleri çerçevesinde birden fazla doğruya ulaşılabilmeyi vurgular. Düşünceleri sürekli olarak teste tabi tutar. İddialar verilerle sürekli geriye dönük olarak test edilir. Akıl yürütme süreci devamlı kılar. Tartışmanın özellikleri tartışma ortamına göre şekillenir. Veri, iddia ve garantiler bağlama göre değişebilir. Tartışmayı yürüten kişilerin bilgi ve becerilerinden etkilenir. Her tartışma özel bir alanda incelenir. Hukuk, tıp veya iş tartışmaları aynı şekilde gerçekleşmez (Aldağ, 2006). Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmede yaklaşımında öğrencilerin bir olay karşısında bilimsel verilere dayalı bir iddia üretmeleri, iddiaları için önceki bilgilerini kullanarak veri ve destekler bulmaları, olayı gözlemleyerek kendi tahminleri ile karşılaştırmaları beklenebilir. Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmenin özü öğrencilerin iddialarını geriye dönük verileri ile yoklayıp süreç boyunca test etmesidir. Bu düşünme biçimi eğitim sisteminde her zaman hedeflenen bilimsel düşünmedir. Ayrıca bugün eğitim sistemimizde kabul gören yapılandırıcı yaklaşımda da benimsenen öğrencinin zihninde var olan bilgilerini yeni durumlarla sürekli karşılaştırarak, sorgulaması ve yapılandırmasıdır. Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmenin farklı öğeleri bulunmaktadır. Temele alınan öğeler; iddia, veri ve gerekçe olmakla birlikte destek, sınırlayıcı ve çürütmeler de yardımcı öğelerdir. Bir tartışma, bir olay ya da olgu karşısında iddia ileri sürülmesiyle başlar. İddiayı ispatlamak için önceden bilinen bilimsel veriler iddia ile ilişkilendirilerek gerekçe (çünkü cümleleri) olarak sunulur. Bu iddiayı yıkmak için tartışmadaki diğer bireylerin de başka veri ve destekleri ileri sürmesi gerekir. Toulmin (1958) argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımında iddiayı ispatlamaktan ziyade süreç içinde argümanların kullanılması ile elde edilen yönteme vurgu vardır. Toulmin 2003 yılında bir argümanın yapısındaki öğeleri şu şekilde belirtmiştir. Veri (Data): Sahip olduğumuz bilgi ve görüşler. İddia (Claim): bir düşünce veya olay hakkında öne sürülen görüştür. Gerekçe (Warrant): Veri ve iddia arasındaki bağlantıyı verir. Çünkü, bundan dolayı…. Destekleyiciler (Backings): Bir gerekçenin gücünü artıran temel varsayımlar.. Niteleyiciler (Qualifiers): iddianın sınırlarını çizer ve sağlamlaştırır. Kesinlikle, imkansız, şu şartlar altında… Çürütme: iddiaların geçerli olamayacağı durumları belirtir. (Toulmin, 2003 akt Aktamış ve Hiğde, 2015) Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmede araştırmacılar tasarlanan farklı stratejiler ile öğretim ortamlarını zenginleştirmeye çalışmışlardır. Bunlar; ifadeler tablosu, kavram haritası, öğrenciler tarafından yazılan bir deneyin raporu, karikatürlerle yarışan teoriler, hikayelerle yarışan teoriler, kanıt ve fikirlerle yarışan teoriler, bir argümanı yapılandırma, tahmin et-gözle-açıkla ve deney tasarlama gibi etkinlikleri içermektedir. Bilimsel tartışma ortamını oluşturmak için uygulanabilecek bu stratejilerin tümünde, öğrencilerin meraklı olmasını, öğrenmelerini gözden geçirmelerini, karşı fikirler üretmeleri, verileri yorumlayıp analiz edebilmelerini ve farklı fikirlerin oluşmasını sağlayan bir yapı olduğu ortadadır (Çınar, 2013). Aktamış ve Hiğde’nin (2015)önerdikleri Türkçe argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımında dünyada önerilen birçok argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının zayıf yönlerine işaret etmişler ve argümanların hem içerik hem de yapısal olarak sağlamlığına odaklanmışlardır. Bu modelde argümanların modeldeki fonksiyonuna, gerekçelerin ilişkisine ve bilimsel geçerliğine vurgu vardır. Önerdikleri modelde iddia, veri, çürütme, destekleyici ve akıl yürütme öğeleri vardır. Toulmin’ın (1958) modelindeki niteleyici ve gerekçe kaldırılmış, akıl yürütme eklenmiştir. Buna göre modelde iddiaların kanıtlanması ve çürütülmesinde veri, destekleyici ve çürütmeler kullanılırken ilişkiler akıl yürütme ile ortaya çıkarılabilir. Türkiye’de bugüne kadar argümantasyon üzerine yapılan araştırmalar çeşitli değişkenler üzerinden bu yaklaşımın kullanılabilirliğini ve etkililiğini incelemişlerdir. Araştırmaların ülkemizde çok eski bir geçmişi olmamakla birlikte oldukça etkili ve yoğun çalışıldığı da görülmektedir. Bundan sonra da bu alanda çalışmak yapmak isteyen araştırmacılara yapılan çalışmaların yoğunlaştığı yönleri ve alanda daha fazla çalışmaya ihtiyaç duyulan noktaları ve karşılaşılan sorunları göstermek gerekliliği doğmuştur. Bu araştırmada, Türkiye’de fen eğitiminde argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme modelini odak noktası olarak belirleyen, ilköğretim öğrencileri ile çalışılan 2007-2017 yılları arasında yapılan çalışmaları farklı araştırma soruları üzerinden inceleyip değerlendirmek, araştırmaların geldiği noktayı ortaya koyup bundan sonra yapılacak çalışmalara ışık tutmak amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaçla şu alt araştırma sorularına yanıt aranmıştır. Fen eğitiminde argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını konu alan araştırmaların yıllara göre dağılımı nasıldır? Araştırmaların türlerine göre dağılışı nedir? Araştırmaların örneklem büyüklüğü nasıldır? Araştırmalar hangi bağlamlarda gerçekleştirilmiştir? Araştırmalar hangi yöntem ve desenlerle yürütülmüştür? Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme ile hangi değişkenlerin ilişkisi incelenmiştir? Araştırmaların boylamsal değişimi nasıldır? Araştırmalarda neler amaçlanmıştır? Araştırma sonuçlarında nelere ulaşılmıştır? Araştırmacılar diğer araştırmacılar ve fen bilimleri öğretimi için neler önermişlerdir? Yöntem Türkiye’de ilköğretim fen eğitiminde argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme modeli üzerine yapılan çalışmaların son on yılda geldiği yeri; amaç, yöntem, bağlam, boylam, örneklem, çalışma grubu, sonuçlar ve önerilerin ortaya konması amacıyla gerçekleştirilen bu çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden iki farklı içerik analizi yöntemi birlikte kullanılmıştır. İçerik analizi kodlama ve temalar çerçevesinde yapılan yorumlama ve çıkarımda bulunma olarak özetlenebilir (Büyüköztürk, Kılıç Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz ve Demirel, 2017). Bu çalışmada öncelikle Türkiye’de son yıllarda argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme üzerine yapılan çalışmaların yüzeysel özellikleri betimsel içerik analizi yapılarak özetlenmiş, daha sonra meta-sentez (tematik içerik analizi) yöntemi ile çalışmalar eleştirel bir bakış açısıyla yorumlanmıştır. Araştırmada 2007-2017 yılları arasında Türkiye’de yapılan, fen eğitiminde argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmeyi merkeze alan, çalışma grubunu/örneklemini tamamen ya da kısmen ilköğretim öğrencilerinin oluşturduğu, ilk elden veri sağlayan, tamamına erişilebilir makale, tez ve bildiriler taranarak araştırma problemlerine yanıt aranmıştır. Verilerin Toplanması Araştırmada Google akademik ve ulusal tez merkezinden “Argümantasyon, yaparak yazarak bilim öğrenme (YYBÖ), Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme (ATBÖ), bilimsel tartışma, tartışmacı yazma” anahtar kelimeleri ile ulaşılan çalışmalardan amaca uygun olanlar çalışmaya dahil edilmiş, örneklemini sadece öğretmen veya öğretmen adayları oluşturan çalışmalar dahil edilmemiştir. Böylece 22 tez, 20 makale ve 1 bildiri araştırmanın çalışma grubunu oluşturmuştur. Analiz Dokümanların araştırma sorularına göre incelenmesiyle elde edilen veriler frekans ve yüzde değerleriyle verilmiştir. Çalışmaya dâhil edilen araştırmalara birer kod verilmiş ve bu kodlar verilerin analizlerinde kullanılmıştır. İncelenen araştırmalar ve kodları aşağıdaki tabloda verilmiştir (Tablo 1). Tablo 1. Çalışmaya dahil edilen araştırmalar ve verilen kodlar Kodu Türü Yılı Çalışmalar 1 Makale 2016 Acar, Bilgin, Karaçam ve Tola (2016) 2 Makale 2014 Akçay, Bezir-Akçay ve Özyurt (2014) 3 Makale 2013 Akgün, Özkara ve Tokur (2013) 4 Tez (YL) 2010 Altun, E. (2010) 5 Tez (YL) 2016 Arık, M. (2016) 6 Tez (YL) 2014 Arlı, E. E. (2014) 7 Tez(D) 2016 Atabey, N. (2016) 8 Makale 2017 Akçay ve Baltacı (2017) 9 Makale 2016 Balcı ve Yenice (2016) 10 Tez (YL) 2015 Cevher, A. H. (2015) 11 Tez (YL) 2012 Ceylan, K. E. (2012) 12 Makale 2013 Cin ve Türkoğuz (2013) 13 Makale 2016 Çal ve Akarsu (2016) 14 Tez (YL) 2016 Çiftçi, A. (2016) 15 Makale 2014 Çınar ve Bayraktar (2014) 16 Makale 2014 Akgün, Çinici, Deniz, Herdem, Karabiber ve Özden (2014) 17 Makale 2015 Demirel, R. (2015) 18 Makale 2016 Demirel, R. (2016) 19 Tez (YL) 2009 Deveci, A. (2009) 20 Tez (YL) 2016 Doğru, S. (2016) 21 Makale 2016 Erol, Akçay, Bayram ve Kapıcı (2016) 22 Tez (YL) 2014 Ersoy, N. (2014) 23 Makale 2012 Günel, Kıngır ve Geban (2012) 24 Makale 2010 Günel, Kabataş- Memiş ve Büyükkasap (2010) 25 Tez (D) 2014 Hasançebi, F. (2014) 26 Tez (YL) 2013 Kardaş, N. (2013) 27 Tez (YL) 2009 Köroğlu, L. S. (2009) 28 Tez (YL) 2012 Küçük, H.(2012) 29 Tez (D) 2011 Kabataş-Memiş, E. (2011) 30 Makale 2014 Kabataş-Memiş, E.(2014) 31 Makale 2016 Namdar ve Demir (2016) 32 Tez (YL) 2012 Okumuş, S. (2012) 33 Makale 2014 Öğreten ve Uluçınar – Sağır (2014) 34 Tez (YL) 2011 Özkara, D. (2011) 35 Tez (D) 2016 Şahin, E. (2016) 36 Bildiri 2010 Şahin ve Hacıoğlu (2010) 37 Tez (YL) 2014 Şahintürk, G. Y. (2014) 38 Tez (YL) 2009 Tekeli, A. (2009) 39 Makale 2015 Ulu ve Bayram (2015) 40 Tez (YL) 2012 Uluay, G. (2012) 41 Tez (D) 2008 Uluçınar-Sağır (2008) 42 Makale 2013 Uluçınar-Sağır Ve Kılıç (2013) 43 Makale 2013 Yeşildağ-Hasançebi ve Günel (2013) Bulgular Bu bölümde araştırma sorularına ilişkin bulgular verilecektir. Her araştırma sorusu için edinilen bulgu ayrı bölümler halinde verilip grafiklerle desteklenecektir. Çalışmaların Yıllara ve Türlere Göre Dağılımı Bu bölümde çalışmamızın birinci ve ikinci araştırma sorularının odaklanmış olduğu incelenen araştırmaların yıllara ve türlere göre dağılımıyla ilgili bilgiler sunulacaktır. Araştırmaya dahil edilen çalışmaların yıllara göre dağılımı Grafik 1 de gösterilmektedir. Grafik 1. Çalışmaların yıllara ve türlerine göre dağılımı Grafik 1 incelendiğinde fen eğitiminde argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını kullanan çalışmaların 2008 yılından itibaren artışa geçtiği, 2014 ve 2016 yıllarında çalışma sayılarında yüksek bir artış olduğu görülüyor. Argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenmenin2013 yılında MEB Fen Bilimleri dersi öğretim programına girmesiyle araştırmacıların ilgisi de artmış olabilir. Bu ilgi maalesef 2016 yılından sonra birdenbire durma noktasına gelmiş görünüyor. Araştırmaların türlerine baktığımızda ise %47 sinin (20) makale, %39sinin (17) yüksek lisans tezi, %12 sinin (5) doktora tezi ve%2 sinin (1) bildiri olduğu görülmektedir. Çalışmaların Örneklem Büyüklüğü ve Çeşidi Bu kısımda incelenen çalışmaların hangi örneklemler üzerine çalıştıkları ve örneklem büyüklükleri üzerine odaklanan üçüncü araştırma sorusuna cevap aranacaktır. Araştırmaya dahil edilen çalışmaların örneklem ve çalışma grupları tablolar halinde verilmiştir. Tablo 2 incelendiğinde araştırmacıların büyük çoğunluğu çalışmalarında (21-50 öğrenci) iki farklı sınıf üzerinde araştırmalarını yürütmüştür. Araştırmaların deneysel deseni tercih etmesi ve ulaşılabilir örneklem seçmeleri bunda etkili olmuş olabilir. Yine büyük oranda araştırma 51-100 öğrenci ile çalışarak daha geniş örneklemden veri toplamaya çalışmıştır. Çok az bir oranda araştırma 100’ün üzerinde öğrenci ile çalışmış ve bu araştırmalar örneklem büyüklüğünden de anlaşılacağı üzere betimsel tarama amacını gütmüşlerdir. Odak olarak özel bir örneklemi seçen araştırmaların ise örneklem sayısı 20’nin altında kalmıştır. Bu nitelikteki araştırmaların sayıca az ve nitel deseni seçen araştırmalar olduğu görülmüştür. Tablo 2. Araştırmaların örneklem büyüklüğü Örneklem Büyüklüğü Araştırma Sayısı ve Yüzdesi* 0-20 Öğrenci 3 (%7) 21-50 öğrenci (iki sınıf) 19 (%44) 51-100 öğrenci (üç sınıf) 17 (%40) 100+ öğrenci 4 (%9) *Yüzde değerleri hesaplanırken sayılar en yakın tam sayıya yuvarlanmıştır. Tablo 3. Araştırma örneklemlerinin sınıf düzeyi Sınıf düzeyi Araştırma sayısı ve yüzdesi* 4 1 (%2) 5 6 (%14) 6 8 (%18) 7 11 (%26) 8 18 (%42) Belirtilmeyen 2 (%5) *Yüzde değerleri hesaplanırken sayılar en yakın tam sayıya yuvarlanmıştır. Sınıf düzeyi ile ilgili bulgular için Tablo 3 oluşturulmuştur. Tablo 3 incelendiğinde araştırmacıların %42’si 8. sınıf öğrencileriyle çalışmayı tercih etmiş,%26’sı 7. sınıf öğrencileri ile çalışırken, %18’i 6. sınıf öğrencilerini, %14’ü 5. sınıf öğrencilerini tercih etmiş, % 2’si 4. sınıf öğrencileri ile çalışmıştır. İki çalışma örneklemini ortaokul diye tanıtarak sınıf düzeyini belirtmemiştir. İlkokul 1, 2 ve 3. sınıf düzeyleri üzerine yapılan bir çalışmaya ise rastlanmamıştır. Araştırmaların Gerçekleştirildikleri Bağlamlar Araştırmaların gerçekleştirildikleri bağlama ait bulgular Tablo 4 de gruplanarak verilmiştir. Tablo 4 incelendiğinde araştırmacıların argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını test etmek için okuldaki fen derslerinden yararlandıkları görülmektedir. Az sayıda çalışma ise üstün zekâlı öğrencilerin eğitim aldığı BİLSEM’lerde bu modelin etkisini araştırma yoluna gitmiştir. Araştırmacılar argümantasyonun etkilerini görmek için öğrencilere derslerde uygulayarak veri toplamışlardır. Tablo 4. Araştırmaların yapıldığı bağlama göre dağılışı Çalışılan bağlam Çalışma kodları Yüzdesi * Fen bilimleri / Fen ve teknoloji / Bilim uygulamaları derslerinde 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43 %95 BİLSEM etkinliklerinde 10, 35 %5 *Yüzde değerleri hesaplanırken sayılar en yakın tam sayıya yuvarlanmıştır. Araştırmalarda Kullanılan Yöntem ve Desenler Bu araştırma sorusunun yanıtı aşağıdaki tabloda gruplanarak verilmiştir. (Tablo 5) Tablo 5. Araştırmaların başvurduğu yönteme göre dağılımı Araştırma deseni Kullanılan yöntem Araştırma kodları Yüzdesi* Eylem araştırması 7, 30, 31 %16 Fenomenoloji 5 Betimsel araştırma 14 Nitel araştırma 13 Söylem çözümlemesi 23 Nicel Deneysel- yarı deneysel 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 27 28, 29, 33, 34, 38,39, 40, 42, 43 %60 Karma Deneysel, yarı deneysel + görüşme, betimsel analiz 6, 15, 17, 24, 25, 26, 32, 35, 36, 37, 41 %26 *Yüzde değerleri hesaplanırken sayılar en yakın tam sayıya yuvarlanmıştır. Tablo 5 incelendiğinde araştırmacıların modeli test etmek için çoğunlukla nicel yöntemlerden deneysel ve yarı deneysel yöntemleri kullandığını göstermektedir. Deneysel yöntemlerde bağımsız değişkenin bağımlı değişkeni nasıl etkilediğini görmek için deneysel desenler kullanılır (Büyüköztürk ve diğerleri, 2017). Deney ve kontrol grubu oluşturularak deney grubunda etkililiği araştırılacak yöntem/ bağımsız değişken; kontrol grubunda ise programın öngördüğü yöntem uygulanır ve uygulama sonucu çıkan farklılıklar bağımsız değişkene yorulur. İrdelenen çalışmalara bakıldığında deneysel desenle argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına, fen’e yönelik tutumlarına, eleştirel düşünme becerilerine, bilimsel düşünme becerilerine, karar verme becerilerine, tartışma istek ve becerilerine, soru yapılarına, kavram yanılgılarına, problem çözme becerilerine vb. etkisi incelenmiştir. Deneysel desenler tasarlanırken argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının Tahmin et - Gözle – Açıkla [TGA] stratejisi, kavram karikatürleri, grup tartışmaları gibi teknikleri denenmiş; benzetim, araştırma sorgulama temelli öğretim, işbirlikli öğrenme, örnek olay gibi öğretim modelleri ile birlikte kullanımı karşılaştırılmış ve sosyo-bilimsel konular başta olmak üzere argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımına uyarlanması nispeten daha kolay olan fen bilimlerinin genellikle fizik alanındaki üniteleri ile çalışılmıştır. İncelenen araştırmalarda deneysel yöntemlerle elde edilen sonuçları test etmek veya farklı araştırma sorularına da cevap bulabilmek için nicel ve nitel araştırma yöntemlerinin birlikte kullanıldığı karma yöntem de oldukça rağbet görmüştür. Argümantasyon-Tabanlı Öğrenme ile İlişkilendirilen Değişkenler Tablo 6 da incelenen araştırmaların argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme ile ilişkisini incelediği değişkenler verilmiştir. Tablo 6: Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı ile ilişkisi incelenen değişkenlerin dağılımı İncelenen değişken Araştırma kodları Yüzdesi* Fen bilimleri kazanımlarında akademik başarı 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 27, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, 43 %56 Karar verme becerileri 26 %2 Problem çözme becerileri 13, 26 %5 Tartışma becerileri 7, 22, 26, 31, 32, 33, 15 %16 Bilimin doğası anlayışları 1, 4, 9, 11, 38, 41, 42 %16 Fene yönelik tutumları 4, 8, 9, 11, 24, 28, 34, 41 %19 Kavramsal anlamaya etkisi ve kavram öğrenimi 1, 2, 8, 9,11, 12, 18, 22, 28, 32, 36, 38, 41, 42, 15 %35 Bilimsel süreç becerilerine etkisi 1, 8, 39, 15 %9 Sosyo-bilimsel konularla 7, 37 %5 Okuma anlama 36 %2 Eleştirel düşünme becerileri 11, 35, 15 %7 Bilimsel kanıtları kullanma becerieri 22 %2 Argüman geliştirme düzeyleri 14, 16, 25, 27, 23 %12 Üstbiliş becerileri 6, 35 %5 Bilimsel yaratıcılık 10 %2 Bilim-Sözde bilim ayrımı 5 %2 Tartışmaya isteklilik 18, 20, 41, 15 %9 Bilişsel düşünme becerileri 19, 20 %5 Bilimsel bilgiye yönelik görüşler 34 %2 Soru yapıları 23 %2 Tablo 6 incelendiğinde araştırmacıların argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını test etmek istedikleri esas değişken fen kazanımlarına yönelik akademik başarıdır. 24 çalışma akademik başarının nasıl değiştiğini araştırmıştır. Bunun yanında araştırmacılar argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı ile birlikte öğrencilerin kavramsal anlamalarına, sırasıyla fen’e yönelik tutumlarına, bilimin doğası anlayışlarına, tartışma becerilerine, argüman geliştirme düzeylerine ve tartışma istekliliklerine, bilimsel süreç becerilerine ve eleştirel düşünme becerilerine, problem çözme becerilerine, sosyo-bilimsel konulara, üstbiliş becerileri ve bilişsel düşünme becerilerine bakmışlardır. Birer çalışma ise karar verme becerileri, okuma anlama becerileri, bilimsel kanıtları kullanma becerileri, bilimsel yaratıcılık, bilim-sözde bilim ayrımı, soru yapıları ve bilimsel bilgiye yönelik görüşleri incelemiştir. İncelenen Çalışmaların Gerçekleştiği Süre Özellikleri Araştırmaların çalıştığı boylamsal değişim nasıldır? sorusuna daha anlaşılır yanıt verilebilmesi için araştırmalar uygulama sürelerine göre kısa, orta ve uzun süreli olarak üçe ayrılmıştır. Boylamsal bakımdan araştırmalar 6 hafta veya 24 saatten kısa süreli uygulama yapmış ise kısa süreli, 6 hafta ila 10 hafta arasında yapılan çalışmalar orta süreli ve 10 haftadan uzun sürede uygulanan çalışmalar uzun süreli olarak kodlanmıştır. Ulaşılan sonuçlar aşağıdaki grafikte gösterilmiştir. Grafik 2: Araştırmaların boylamsal dağılımı Grafik 2 incelendiğinde araştırmacıların orta ve kısa süreli araştırmaları daha çok tercih ettiği görülmektedir. Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrenciler ve öğretmenler tarafından tanınması ve benimsenmesi için bir zaman gerektiği düşünülürse araştırmaların çoğu bir ünite veya birkaç haftalık uygulama ile sınırlı kalmıştır. İncelenen Araştırmalar Neler Amaçlamaktadır? Bu araştırma sorusunun yanıtlanması için bir tablo oluşturulmuştur. Tablo 7: Çalışmaya dahil edilen araştırmaların amaçları. Amaçlar Araştırma sayısı Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının akademik başarıya etkisini araştırmak 24 Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin fene, bilimsel bilgiye ya da tartışma etkinliklerine yönelik tutumlarını araştırmak 9 Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı ile çeşitli (tartışma, eleştirel düşünme, karar verme vb.) becerilerin değişimini incelemek 14 Sosyo-bilimsel konuların argümantasyonla öğretilmesi 2 Araştırma sorgulama temelli aktiviteleri içeren argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımınin diğer değişkenler ( akademik başarı, kavrama vb.) ile ilişkisini araştırmak 2 Örnek olay temelli etkinlikler ile yürütülen argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımınin etkisini araştırmak 2 Özel bir grupta argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımınin diğer değişkenlere etkisini araştırmak 3 Tartışma niteliklerinin araştırılması 5 Çoklu yazma etkinlikleri, kavram karikatürleri ya da TGA stratejisi veya benzetim teknikleri ile yürütülen argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımınin diğer değişkenlere etkisini incelemek 6 Bilginin kalıcılığına etkisi, öz değerlendirmenin sürece etkisi araştırmaları 3 Bilimin doğası anlayışına etkisini incelemek 7 Tablo 7 incelendiğinde araştırmacılar argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin akademik başarısına, kavramsal anlama düzeylerine, fen’e yönelik tutumlarına, eleştirel düşünme becerilerine, üstbiliş kavramlarına, soru yapılarına, tartışma istek ve becerilerine, özgüvenlerine, karar verme ve problem çözme becerilerine etkisini incelemek istemiştir. Üstün yetenekli öğrencilerin ve tartışma yöntemi ile ilk defa karşılaşan dezavantajlı öğrencilerin tartışma becerilerini de inceleyerek evreni genişletmeye çalışmışlardır. Ayrıca araştırmacılar sosyo-bilimsel konuların öğretiminde doğası gereği ortaya çıkan ikilemleri argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öngördüğü tartışma teknikleri ile ilişkilendirerek incelemişlerdir. Araştırmacılar ayrıca argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını araştırma sorgulama temelli öğrenme etkinlikleri ve örnek olay temelli etkinlikler ile birlikte kullanarak kullanılabilir bir model bulmaya çalışmışlardır. Araştırmacılar yazma etkinlikleri, kavram karikatürleri ve tahmin et gözle açıkla (TGA) gibi etkinliklerle sınıf içi etkinlikleri karşılaştırmaya imkan vermişlerdir. İncelenen Araştırma Sonuçlarında Nelere Ulaşılmıştır? Bilişsel özelliklere yönelik sonuçlar Yapılan araştırmalarda büyük çoğunlukla argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrenci başarısına etkisinin olup olmadığı incelenmiştir. Ulaşılan sonuçlara göre argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı fen bilimleri öğretim programının öngördüğü yöntem ve tekniklere ya da geleneksel diye tanımlanan düz anlatım ve soru-cevap tekniklerine kıyasla öğrencilerin akademik başarılarında anlamlı derecede ve pozitif yönde etki yapmaktadır ( bkz. 2, 3, 4, 9, 11, 15, 16, 19, 20, 24, 25, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43). Ayrıca öğrenciler de bu süreçte kendilerini daha başarılı bulduklarını, daha iyi öğrendiklerini ifade etmişlerdir (bkz.30). Öte yandan öğrencilerin akademik başarılarında argümantasyonla karşılaştırılan yönteme göre anlamlı bir fark tespit etmeyen araştırmalar da mevcuttur (bkz. 1, 17). Bu araştırmalar elde ettikleri sonucu yorumlarken kontrol grubunun da yeterince öğrenci merkezli yöntemlerle ders işlediğini veya öğrencilerin argümantasyon ile ilk defa karşılaşmasından dolayı yeterince olgunlaşmadığını belirtmişlerdir. 25 kodlu çalışma ise çoktan seçmeli sorularla yapılan başarı testlerinde bir fark oluşmazken daha fazla yaratıcılık ve özgünlük gerektiren açık uçlu sorularda argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının daha etkili olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Araştırmaların kavram yanılgıları üzerine ortaya koyduğu sonuçlar ise oldukça dikkat çekicidir. Beklendiği üzere doğasında tartışma ve iddiasını verilerle destekleyerek öğrendiklerini öğrencilere sürekli kullandırma olan argümantasyon kavram öğrenmeyi kolaylaştırmaktadır (bkz. 2, 12, 18, 21, 28, 29, 32, 36, 38 ); başarısını en çok artıran öğrenciler orta seviyede başarı gösteren öğrencileridir (bkz. 29); bilginin kalıcılığı üzerinde olumlu sonuç bildiren çalışmalar da bulunmaktadır (bkz. 25, 29, 34, 35, 41). Öğrencilerin eleştirel ve bilimsel düşünme becerileri olumlu gelişmiştir (bkz. 1, 6, 10, 15, 20, 30, 35, 37). Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını sınıf olarak veya grup tartışması şeklinde inceleyen araştırmacılar grup tartışmalarının sınıf içi tartışmalardan bir takım farkları olduğunu bulmuşlardır. Buna göre bilginin algılamasında artış sağladığı (bkz. 19, 38); tartışma öğelerinin kullanımında artış sağladığı (bkz. 17); kalıcı öğrenme sağladığı (bkz.29); yanlış öğrenmeleri düzelttiği (bkz. 13) bildirilmiştir. Bu araştırmalara göre öğrencilerin akranlarından öğrenmedeki becerisi ve öğrenmenin sorumluluğu nedenlerinden dolayı grup tartışmaları sınıf içi tartışmalardan daha yararlı olmuştur. Öğrencilerin kendi öğrenmelerindeki sorumluluğu üstlenmelerine katkı sağlayan öz değerlendirme, argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı ile birlikte kullanıldığında (bkz. 24, 29) bilginin kalıcılığında da artış sağlanmıştır. Bilimsel bilginin doğasının ve bilimin doğası anlayışlarının etkileşimini inceleyen araştırmalara göre argümantasyon bu değişkenleri olumlu etkilemiştir (bkz. 4, 11, 38, 41, 42). Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının sosyo-bilimsel konuları öğretmede bu konuların doğasında var olan ikilemden dolayı oldukça kullanışlı olduğu da belirtilmiştir (bkz. 7, 37). Duyuşsal özelliklere yönelik sonuçlar Çalışmaların çoğunda argümantasyon öğrencilerin fen’e karşı tutumlarında anlamlı bir değişiklik sağlanamamıştır (bkz. 3, 4, 8, 11, 13, 21, 34, 41). Bu durumu araştırmacılar öğrencilerin fen’e yönelik tutumlarının dirençli olmasına ve daha fazla zamana ihtiyaç duyulmasına bağlamıştır (bkz. 11, 22). Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin fen’e yönelik tutumlarında olumlu değişiklik olduğunu bildiren çalışmalar da olmuştur (bkz. 9, 28, 38) Öğrencilerin tartışmaya isteklilikleri artmıştır (bkz. 15, 18, 20, 38) Tartışmaya katılmadaki özgüven ve cesaretleri (bkz. 29,25,40,30) artmıştır. Öğrenciler tartışma yöntemini derslerin daha aktif geçmesi, derse katılmaya fırsat sağlaması, yapılan deneyler ve etkileşim gibi nedenlerle daha çok sevmiştir (bkz. 15, 16, 17, 24, 25, 30, 32, 35, 40). Psikomotor özelliklere yönelik sonuçlar Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı öğrencilerin tartışma becerilerini ve tartışmaya istekliliklerini de etkilemiştir. Tartışma becerilerini artırdığını gösteren çalışmalar (bkz.7, 11, 13, 17, 25, 26, 27, 32, 33, 41) bulunmaktadır. Bilimsel süreç becerilerini artırdığını (bkz.15, 39) kaydeden çalışmaya karşılık herhangi bir olumlu fark saptayamayan çalışma da mevcuttur (bkz. 21) Karar verme becerileri artmıştır (bkz. 37) Problem çözme becerilerinin arttığını ise bir çalışma ( bkz. 38) bildirmiştir. Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı öğrencilerin birbirleriyle iletişimini ve etkileşimini artırmıştır (bkz. 25, 30, 35). Argümantasyon öğelerinin kullanımına yönelik sonuçlar Argümantasyon öğelerinin kullanımını araştıran çalışmalara bakacak olursak; öğrencilerin kaliteli bir argümantasyon için kullanmaları gereken; çünkü, bu sebepten dolayı eğer, şayet, neden, nereden anladın ifadelerini kullanma sıklığı bu modelin kullanımıyla birlikte artıyor (bkz. 11); öğrenciler tartışma öğeleri ile desteklenen öğrenme ortamlarında ilişkilendirme öğesini daha çok kullanıyor ama garanti öğesinin kullanımı için yeterli şartlar oluşmayabiliyor (bkz. 27); 11 yaş grubunda iddia, veri ve zayıf çürütmeler kullanıldığını, öğrencilerin genelde orta düzey argümanlar ürettiğini, hatırlatmalarla düzeyin yükseldiğini bildiren (bkz. 31) çalışmaya karşılık 5-6-7. sınıf seviyelerinde argümantasyon niteliğini araştıran 14 kodlu araştırmaya göre öğrenciler en çok iddia öğesini kullanmakta, karşıt iddia ve gerekçe üretmekte ise başarısızdır. Yine 14 kodlu çalışmaya göre sınıflarda en çok soruyu genelde öğretmen soruyor ama öğretmen soru sayısı ile argümantasyon kalitesi arasında bir ilişki bulunmuyor. 7 kodlu araştırmaya göre ise sosyo-bilimsel konuların argümantasyonla öğretilmesinde öğrencilerin iddia, kanıt ve muhakeme puanlarında artış kaydedildiği belirtilmiştir. Öte yandan argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımında tartışmalar sırasında öğrencilerin iddia, veri, gerekçe, destek, karşıt iddia ve çürütme gibi öğeleri kullanırken ön bilgilerini kullanması gerektiğinden öğrencilerin sahip olduğu kavram yanılgılarını tespit etmede de etkilidir (bkz. 36, 13). Fakat dikkat edilmesi gereken ise küçük grup tartışmaları yaparken öğrencilerin sahip olduğu kavram yanılgılarını diğer öğrencilere de transfer edebileceğidir (bkz. 12, 16). Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını öğretim yöntemleri ile birlikte değerlendiren çalışmalara baktığımızda ise araştırma sorgulama temelli yaklaşımla birlikte ele alan bir çalışmada öğrencilere araştırma sorusu ve çözüm yöntemi sunulmadan sadece gerekli malzemeler verilerek problemi çözmeleri istendiğinde bilimsel süreç becerilerinin tüm boyutlarında gelişme sağlandığını (bkz. 39); Örnek olay yöntemi ile argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını birlikte değerlendiren (bkz. 36) bir çalışmada kavram yanılgılarının ortaya çıkarılmasında ve giderilmesinde oldukça etkili olduğu da görülmüştür. İncelenen Araştırmaların Sundukları Öneriler Nelerdir? Son on yılda fen eğitiminde argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının etkisini ilköğretim öğrencileriyle çalışarak inceleyen çalışmaları analiz ettiğimiz bu çalışmada araştırmacıların diğer araştırmacılar, öğretmenler ve öğretim programı/ ders kitabı tasarlayıcıları için getirdiği önerileri aşağıdaki şekilde özetleyebiliriz: Araştırmacılara yönelik öneriler; Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı etkilerinin daha iyi görülebilmesi için daha uzun süreli uygulamalar gerçekleştirilmelidir (bkz.4, 5, 8, 11, 16, 17, 18, 25, 26, 29, 32, 34, 37, 38, 40, 41). Sadece fen bilimleri dersinde değil diğer derslerde de etkisi araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 14, 17, 25, 26, 28, 32, 34, 36, 39, 40). İlkokul veya ortaokul düzeylerinin farklı seviyelerinde de araştırılmalıdır (bkz.2, 4, 6, 14, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 34, 38, 39). Daha geniş örneklemlerle araştırılarak genelenebilirliği sağlanmalıdır (bkz. 4, 6, 11, 17, 34, 36, 38, ,40 ). Sosyo bilimsel konularda etkililiği incelenmelidir (bkz. 4, 11, 17, 18, 20, 34, 36, 41 ). Öğretmen- öğrenci etkileşimine etkisi araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 6). Farklı fen bilimleri üniteleri ile de çalışılmalıdır (bkz. 2, 8, 20, 24, 26, 28, 41). Grupla argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 11, 12, 19, 25). Öğretmenlerin pedagojik alan bilgisini nasıl değiştirdiği araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 25). Öğretmenlerin argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımıni kullanma yeterlilikleri araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 37). Farklı sosyo ekonomik düzey öğrencilerdeki değişimi incelenmelidir (bkz. 25) Dezavantajlı veya çifte dezavantajlı öğrencilerde etkililiği incelenebilir (bkz. 6) Argümantasyon becerilerinin günlük yaşamdaki yansımaları araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 25) Yazma becerilerine etkisine bakılmalıdır (bkz. 6, 14, 21, 29) Sözlü argümantasyon becerileri incelenmelidir (bkz. 25). Argümantasyon ve bilimin doğası etkileşimi incelenebilir (bkz. 1, 11, 40) Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımınin neden yaygın uygulanmadığı görüşmelerle ortaya çıkarılabilir (bkz. 14) Öğretmenlerin soruları ile argümantasyon kalitesi karşılaştırılmalıdır (bkz. 14, 41). Tartışma yöntemin avantaj ve sınırlılıkları karşılaştırılmalıdır (bkz. 27). Tartışma yönteminin diğer öğretim yöntemleri ile birlikte kullanımı araştırılmalıdır (bkz.3, 13, 17, 18, 27, 32). Öğrencilerin bilimsel tartışmaya yönelik görüşlerini ölçen bir ölçek geliştirilmelidir (bzk. 37). Farklı argümantasyon etkinlikleri tasarlanarak yöntem zenginleştirilmelidir (bkz. 3, 13, 16, 28, 33). Öğrenmenin kalıcılığına etkisi araştırılmalıdır (bkz. 18). Nitel çalışmalar yapılmalıdır (bkz. 2, 3). Video kayıtları ile desteklenen içerik araştırmaları yapılmalıdır (bkz. 23). Üst düzey düşünme soruları kullanılarak başka araştırmalar tasarlanmalı (bkz. 13).Üst ve alt bilişsel kavramayı ölçen araçlarla yöntemin etkinliği test edilmelidir (bkz. 1). Öğretmenlere yönelik öneriler; Sosyo bilimsel konularda kullanılabilir (bkz. 4, 11, 17, 18, 34, 36, 41). Grupla argümantasyon kullanılmalıdır (bkz. 19, 20). Öğretmenler öğrencilerin grup çalışmalarında rehberlik etmelidir ve gruptaki öğrencilerin her birinin görevi kesin çizgilerle belirlenmelidir (bkz. 22). Alternatif değerlendirme teknikleri kullanılmalıdır (bkz. 29). Öğretmenler daha fazla sınıf içi tartışma yaptırmalıdır. Bu tartışmalarda yardım isteyen öğrencileri akran desteği ile desteklenmelidir. Tartışma etkinlikleri titizlikle planlanmalıdır. Tartışma becerilerinin gelişmesi için yöntem ilkokuldan itibaren kullanılmalıdır (bkz. 27). Küçük yaştaki öğrencilerin adaptasyonu için somut nesnelerden faydalanılmalıdır (bkz. 31). Sınıf mevcudu az olan sınıflarda sınıf kontrolü daha olacaktır (bkz.17, 32). Öncelikle öğrencilere argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının kendisi öğretilerek etkinliklere geçilmelidir (bkz. 40). Grup tartışmalarında kavram yanılgılarının da transfer edilebileceği göz önüne alınmalıdır (bkz. 12). Yazma etkinlikleri öğrenciyi öğrenmesinden sorumlu kılacağı için kullanılması faydalı olabilir (2bkz. 1). Öğretmenlerin soru kaliteleri tartışmayı yönlendirdiği için dikkatli soru sorulmalıdır (bkz. 12). Argümantasyona daha çok yer verilmelidir (bkz. 13, 30). Laboratuvar etkinliklerinde argümantasyona yer verilmelidir (bkz. 39). Dezavantajlı öğrencilerin iletişim ve ifade becerilerini geliştirebileceği beklenebilir (43). Öğretim programı veya ders kitabı tasarlayıcıları için verilen öneriler; Ders kitaplarında argümantasyon etkinliklerine yer verilmelidir (bkz.2, 13, 38) Öğretmenlere bu model tanıtılmalı, becerilerini geliştirici hizmet içi eğitimler verilmelidir (bkz. 4, 6, 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 29, 32, 34, 37, 38, 40) Sonuç ve Tartışma Ülkemizde bilimsel tartışma-argümantasyon modeli ile ilgili son on yılda ilköğretim öğrencileri ile yapılan araştırmalar incelendiğinde, çalışmaların son dönemde yoğunlaştığı, ilgili çalışmaların akademik başarı, kavramsal değişim, tartışma becerileri ve fen’e yönelik tutum v.b. yapılara argümantasyon-tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının etkisi konularında aydınlatıcı bilgilere ulaşılmayı hedeflediği söylenebilir Bu araştırmanın kapsamını oluşturan 2007 yılından bu yana yapılan araştırmalarda, hemen her yıl argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına, fen’e yönelik tutumlarına, bilimin doğası anlayışlarına ve bilimsel süreç becerilerine etkisi incelenmiştir. 2008 yılında yapılan araştırmalarda argümantasyonun akademik başarı, fen’e yönelik tutum, tartışma isteklilikleri üzerine etkisi incelenirken, 2011 yılında bunlara ek olarak öz değerlendirme yapılan modelin farkları gösterilmiştir. Doğası gereği sosyal etkileşim gerektiren argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı sosyal yapılandırmacı kuram ile ilişkilendirilmiştir. 2013 yılında fen bilimleri öğretim programına alınan ve önerilen argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı ile ilgili çalışmalar bu tarihten sonra gözle görülür bir ivme kazanmıştır ve yaklaşıma uygun kullanılan teknikler de araştırmacıların ilgisini çekmeye başlamıştır. 2014 yılında dezavantajlı öğrencilerle de çalışılarak araştırmaların evrenini genişletilmiştir. Yapısında ikilemler olması nedeniyle sosyo-bilimsel konular argümantasyon araştırmalarında daha sık kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. 2015 yılında üstün yetenekli öğrencilerle de çalışılarak tartışma becerilerine etkisi incelenmiş ve 2016 yılında burada bahsedilen hemen her değişken ile ilgili çalışmalar devam etmiştir. Argümantasyona ülkemizde diğer ülkelerden daha geç ilgi gösterilmiştir. Uluslararası ESERA 2009 konferansında sunulan bildirileri inceleyen Öztürk ve Kaptan (2014), konferansta sunulan bildirilerde Türkiye’de fen eğitiminde argümantasyon konulu bildiriye rastlamadıklarını bildirmiştir. Buna karşın yapılan çalışmalar da o tarihten sonra yıldan yıla genellikle artmıştır. Sayıca en çok çalışma 2014 ve 2016 yıllarında yapılmıştır. 2017 yılında çalışma sayısında ise bir düşüş gözlenmiştir. Çalışmaların örneklemine baktığımızda en çok çalışmanın 8. sınıf öğrencileri üzerine olduğunu görmekteyiz. Bunun sebebi argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının gerektirdiği tartışma becerisine yaş ve bilgi düzeylerinden dolayı 8. sınıfların daha kolay adapte olabileceği beklentisi olabilir. İlkokul 1. 2. ve 3. sınıflarla yapılan bir çalışmaya rastlanmamış olmasının ise iki sebebi olabilir; birincisi bu çocukların küçük olması sebebiyle tartışma için gereken bilgi düzeyi ve becerinin yetersiz olması, ikincisi ise fen bilimleri dersi programının 3. sınıftan başlaması olabilir. İlkokul düzeyinde argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını kullanırken bu çocukların somut işlemler döneminde olduğu düşünülerek üzerinde tartışılacak objenin sınıfa getirilmesi ile birtakım problemler giderilebilir (bkz. 31). Bu konuda Küçük ve Aycan’ın (2014) yaptığı bir araştırmada araştırmacıların argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını test etmek için ilköğretim ve yükseköğretim öğrencilerini seçtiğini görmüş ve nicel araştırmalar için gereken testleri bu gruptaki öğrencilere daha kolay uygulanabileceği için araştırmacıların tercihinin bu yönde olabileceğini belirtmiştir. Araştırmalar büyük oranda deneysel olarak tasarlanmıştır. Deney grubu ve kontrol gruplu desenler çoğunluktadır, bu nedenle çalışmaların bağlamı okulda iki veya üç sınıfın çalışma grubu olarak yer aldığı fen bilimleri dersi ya da bu araştırmalar için daha elverişli olan seçmeli bilim uygulamaları dersi olmuştur. Az sayıda çalışma da üstün yetenekli öğrencilerin destek eğitimi gördüğü BİLSEM’lerde yapılmıştır. Araştırmacılar tartışma yönteminin üstün yetenekli öğrencilerin yaratıcılıklarına nasıl etki ettiğini incelemişlerdir. Araştırmaların çoğu deneysel desenli olmuştur. Araştırmacıların, yaklaşımın henüz ortaya çıkmamış özelliklerini belirleyebilmek ve derinlemesine anlamak için daha çok nitel çalışma yapması gerekmektedir. Bu sorunu aşmak için bazı araştırmacılar nicel çalışmalarına görüşme yöntemini de ekleyerek gömülü karma deseni uygulamışlardır. Böylece nicel olarak elde edilemeyecek verilere de ulaşmışlardır. Kabataş-Memiş (2017) de tezleri incelediği araştırmasında araştırmacılara farklı örneklem grupları ile bilimsel bilginin transferine yönelik daha derinlemesine ve kendini tekrar etmeyen nicel/nitel araştırmalara gereksinim duyulduğunu belirtmiştir. Sonuçlara bakacak olursak araştırmacıların argümantasyon yaklaşımıyla esas incelemek istedikleri değişkenin akademik başarı olduğu görülmektedir. Kabataş-Memiş (2017) 2015 yılına kadar yapılmış argümantasyon konulu tezleri incelediği ve uluslararası bir konferansta sözlü bildiri olarak sunduğu çalışmasında araştırmacıların öncelikle argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının akademik başarıya etkisini incelemek istediği, süreç sonunda da bazı becerilerin değişiminin ölçülmesine ağırlık verildiğini belirtmiştir. Bunun yanında araştırmacılar argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımı ile birlikte öğrencilerin kavramsal anlamalarını, fen’e yönelik tutumlarını, bilimin doğası anlayışlarını, tartışma becerilerini, argüman geliştirme düzeylerini, tartışma istekliliklerini, bilimsel süreç becerilerini, eleştirel düşünme becerilerini, problem çözme becerilerini, sosyo bilimsel konuları, üstbiliş becerileri ve bilişsel düşünme becerilerini araştırmışlardır. Birer çalışma ile karar verme becerileri, okuma anlama becerileri, bilimsel kanıtları kullanma becerileri, bilimsel yaratıcılık, bilim-sözde bilim ayrımı, soru yapıları ve bilimsel bilgiye yönelik görüşleri de incelenmiştir. Bu alanların genişletilmeye ihtiyacı vardır. Küçük ve Ayçan da (2014) yaptıkları literatür taramasında argüman kalitesi, bilgi düzeyi, sosyobilimsel konular ve kavramsal anlama gibi konuların öne çıktığını, bu konuları bilimin doğası, fen’e yönelik tutum, tartışma istekliliği, ATBÖ (argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğretimi) ve yazılı bilimsel tartışma konularının izlediğini bildirmiştir. Çetinkaya ve Taşar (2017) 2004 ve 2016 yılları arasında yapılan fen eğitiminde argümantasyonu konu alan bütün çalışmaları incelediği araştırmasında argümantasyon ile ilgili yapılan çalışmalarda ilk 5 sırada gösterilen beceriye yönelik, akademik başarıya yönelik, tutuma yönelik, kavramsal anlamaya yönelik ve bilimin doğasına yönelik araştırmaların olduğunu belirtmiştir. Araştırmaların boylam olarak dağılımını incelediğimizde araştırmacılar argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımını genel olarak 10 haftadan daha kısa sürede test etmişlerdir. Argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının etkinliğinin daha iyi görülebilmesi için daha uzun süreli araştırmalara ihtiyaç vardır. Araştırma sonuçlarında argümantasyon tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına ve kavramsal anlama düzeyine olumlu katkı yaptığı ortadadır. Özellikle küçük grup tartışmalarında öğrencilerin etkileşim içine girmesiyle özgüvenleri de gelişmektedir. Bununla birlikte geriye dönük zihinsel tarama gerektirdiği için tartışma ortamı öğrencilerin var olan kavram yanılgılarını ortaya çıkarırken birbirlerine aktarmasına da yol açabilmektedir. Öğretmenlerin yöntemin daha etkili olması için grup tartışmasını tercih etmesi faydalı olacaktır ama gruptaki bütün öğrencilerin aktif katılımını sağlaması ve tartışmaları sürekli izlemesi de gerekecektir. Argümantasyon öğrencilerin fen’e yönelik tutumlarını değiştirememiştir bu durumun temel sebebi tutumların değişime dirençli olmasıdır. Bu olumsuzluk da ancak daha uzun süre ayrılması ile aşılabilir. Kabataş-Memiş (2017) de çalışmasında incelediği tezlerin tutuma yönelik bulgularının çoğunlukla nötr olduğunu sayıca çok az bir kısmında ise tutumun olumlu etkilendiğini tespit etmiştir. Araştırmacılar kendi araştırmalarından yola çıkarak bazı önerilerde de bulunmuşlardır. Araştırmaların daha uzun süreye ihtiyaç duyduğunu, diğer fen üniteleri ve diğer derslerde de uygulanmasını önermişlerdir. Kaynaklar: Akçay, B. (2017). Fen Bilimleri Eğitimi Alanındaki Öğretme ve Öğrenme Yaklaşımları. Pegem Akademi, Ankara. Aktamış, H. ve Hiğde, E. (2015). Fen eğitiminde kullanılan argümantasyon modellerinin değerlendirilmesi. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 35, 136-172. Aldağ, H. (2006). Toulmin tartışma modeli. Ç. Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 15(1), 13-34. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Kılıç Çakmak, E., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, Ş. ve Demirel, F. (2016). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemleri, Ankara: PegemA Yayıncılık. Çetinkaya, E. ve Taşar M.F.(2017). Fen Bilimleri Eğitimi Alanında Türkiye Merkezli Argümantasyon Araştırmalarının Çeşitli Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (H. U. Journal of Education), s.1-29 doi: 10.16986/HUJE.2017030625 Çınar, D. (2013). Argümantasyon Temelli Fen Öğretiminin 5. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Öğrenme Ürünlerine Etkisi. Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi. Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Konya. Kabataş-Memiş, E. (2017). Türkiye’de argümantasyon konusunda gerçekleştirilen tezlerin analizi: Bir meta-sentez çalışması. Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education, 6(1), 47-65. Küçük, H., ve Aycan, H. Ş. (2014). 2007-2012 yılları arasında bilimsel tartışma üzerine gerçekleştirilmiş açık erişim çalışmaların bir incelemesi. Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(1). doi:10.21666/mskuefd.05345 Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (2006). İlköğretim Fen ve Teknoloji Dersi (6,7, ve 8. Sınıflar) Öğretim Programı. Ankara,:Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (2013) İlköğretim Kurumları (İlkokullar ve Ortaokullar) Fen Bilimleri Dersi Öğretim Programı. Ankara: Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (2017) Fen Bilimleri Dersi Öğretim Programı (İlkokul ve Ortaokul 3, 4, 5 ,6 , 7 ve 8. Sınıflar). Ankara: Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı Öztürk, E. ve Kaptan, F. (2014). “ESERA 2009” Fen eğitimi araştırmaları konferansı ve içeriğine bakış: Bilimin doğası, tarihi ve felsefesi, argümantasyon üzerine yapılmış çalışmalar. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 22(2), 649-672. Yıldırım, A. ve Şimşek, H. (2016). Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri. (23. Baskı). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. İncelenen Makale, Tez ve Bildiriler 1.Acar, Ö, Tola, Z., Karaçam, S., ve Bilgin, A. (2016). Argümantasyon destekli fen öğretiminin 6.sınıf öğrencilerinin kavramsal anlamalarına, bilimsel düşünme becerilerine ve bilimin doğası anlayışlarına olan etkisi. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 16 (3), 730-749. 2.Akçay, H., Özyurt, B.B. ve Bezir Akçay, B. (2014). Çoklu yazma etkinliklerinin fen ve teknoloji dersi öğretiminde kullanılmasının öğrenci başarısı ve kavram öğrenmeye etkisi. Bayburt Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 9 (2), 15-31. 3.Akgün, A. Tokur, F. Ve Özkara, D. (2013). TGA Stratejisinin Basınç Konusunun Öğretimine Olan Etkisinin İncelenmesi. Amasya Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2(2), 348-369 4.Altun, E. (2010). Işık ünitesinin ilköğretim öğrencilerine bilimsel tartışma (argümantasyon) odaklı yöntem ile öğretimi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara . 5.Arık, M.(2016). Argümantasyon Tabanlı Öğrenme Yönteminin Yedinci Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Bilim Sözde-Bilim Ayrımı Farkındalığının Geliştirilmesi Üzerine Etkisi. İstanbul üniversitesi, eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü. İstanbul 6.Arlı, E. (2014). Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme yaklaşımının (ATBÖ) mevsimlik tarım işçisi konumundaki dezavantajlı öğrencilerin akademik başarıları ve düşünme becerilerine etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Atatürk Üniversitesi, Erzurum. 7.Atabey, N. (2016). Sosyobilimsel konu temelli bir ünitenin geliştirilmesi: yedinci sınıf öğrencilerinin konu alan bilgisi ve argümantasyon nitelikleri. Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi. Muğla sıtkı koçman üniversitesi, eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü. Muğla. 8.Akçay, H. ve Baltacı, A.(2017). Astronomi Öğretiminde Öğrenme Amaçlı Çoklu Yazma Etkinliklerinin Değerlendirilmesi. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2017; 13(1): 138-151 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17860/mersinefd.305773 9.Balci, C. ve Yenice, N. (2016). Effects of the scientific argumentation based learning process on teaching the unit of cell division and inheritance to eighth grade students. Journal of Education in Science, Environment and Health (JESEH), 2(1), 67-84. doi: 10.21891/jeseh.28130 10.Cevher, A. (2015). 8. sınıf üstün yetenekli öğrencilerin anomalik durumlara odaklı argümantasyon (dayanaklandırma) sürecinin bilimsel yaratıcılık düzeylerine etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. İnönü Üniversitesi, Malatya 11.Ceylan, K. E. (2012). İlköğretim 5. sınıf öğrencilerine dünya ve evren öğrenme alanının bilimsel tartışma (argümantasyon) odaklı yöntem ile öğretimi. Yüksek Lisans tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara. 12.Cin, M. ve Türkoğuz, S. (2013). Argümantasyona Dayalı Kavram Karikatürü Etkinliklerinin Öğrencilerin Kavramsal Anlama Düzeylerine Etkisi. Buca Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 35, 155-173. 13.Çal, M. ve Akarsu, B. (2016). İlköğretim 8.Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Pısa Sorusu Üzerinde Argümantasyon Tabanlı Sorgulama Becerilerinin İncelenmesi. 21. Yüzyılda Eğitim ve Toplum,5(14), 35-53. 14.Çiftçi, A. (2016). 5., 6. ve 7. sınıflarda fen derslerinde argümantasyon kalitesinin incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Muş. 15.Çınar, D. ve Bayraktar, S. (2014). Evaluation of the effects of argumentation based science teaching on 5th grade students’ conceptual understanding of the subjects related to “matter and change”. International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology, 2(1), 49-77. 16.Çinici, A., Özden, M., Akgün, A., Herdem, K., Karabiber, H. L. ve Deniz, Ş. M. (2014). Kavram karikatürleriyle desteklenmiş argümantasyon temelli uygulamaların etkinliğinin incelenmesi. Adıyaman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 18, 571-596. doi: 10.14520/adyusbd.839. 17.Demirel, R. (2015). Kuvvet ve hareket konularında bireysel ve grupla argümantasyonun öğrencilerin akademik başarısına etkisi. Eğitimde Kuram ve Uygulama, 11(3), 916-948. doi: 10.17244/eku.05901 18.Demirel, R. (2016). Argümantasyon Destekli Öğretimin Öğrencilerin Kavramsal Anlama ve Tartışma İstekliliklerine Etkisi. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 24(3), 1087-1108 19.Deveci, A. (2009). İlköğretim Yedinci Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Maddenin Yapısı Konusunda Sosyo bilimsel Argümantasyon, Bilgi Seviyeleri Ve Bilişsel Düşünme Becerilerini Geliştirmek, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. 20.Doğru, S. (2016). Argümantasyon temelli sınıf içi etkinliklerin ortaokul 5. Sınıf öğrencilerinin akademik başarılarına mantıksal düşünme becerilerine ve tartışmaya istekliliklerine olan etkisi,yayımlanmaış yüksek lisans tezi, mustafa kemal üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, hatay 21.Erol, G., Akçay, H., Bayram, H., & Kapıcı, H. Ö. (2016). Asit ve baz konusunun öğrenme amaçlı çoklu yazma etkinlikleri kullanılarak öğretiminin değerlendirilmesi. Eğitim, Bilim ve Teknoloji Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1(2), 94-102. 22.Ersoy, N. (2014). Örnek olay temeli grup çalışmalarının öğrencilerin bilimsel kanıtları anlama ve kullanmalarına, argümantasyon becerilerine ve kavramsal anlamalarına etkisi. Yükse Lisans Tezi. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, İzmir. 23.Günel, M., Kıngır, S. ve Geban, Ö. (2012). Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme (ATBÖ) yaklaşımının kullanıldığı sınıflarda argümantasyon ve soru yapılarının incelenmesi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 37(164), 316-330. 24.Günel, M., Kabatas-Memis, E. ve Büyükkasap, E. (2010). Yaparak yazarak bilim öğrenimi-yybö yaklasımının ilköğretim öğrencilerinin fen akademik basarısına ve fen ve teknoloji dersine yönelik tutumuna etkisi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 35(155), 49-62. 25.Hasabçebi, F. (2014). Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme yaklaşımının (ATBÖ) öğrencilerin fen başarıları, argüman oluşturma becerileri ve bireysel gelişimleri üzerine etkisi. Doktora Tezi. Atatürk Üniversitesi, Erzurum. 26.Kardaş, N. (2013). Fen eğitiminde argümantasyon odaklı öğretimin öğrencilerin karar verme ve problem çözme becerilerine etkisi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. 27.Köroğlu, L. (2009). 8. sınıf fen ve teknoloji dersi kalıtım konusunun tartışma öğeleri temelli rehber sorularla desteklenen benzetim ortamında öğretiminin akademik başarı ve tartışma öğelerini kullanma düzeyine etkisi. Yüksek Lisans tezi. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Adana. 28.Küçük, H. (2012). İlköğretimde bilimsel tartışma destekli sınıf içi etkinliklerin kullanılmasının öğrencilerin kavramsal anlamalarına, sorgulayıcı öğrenme becerileri algılarına ve fen ve teknoloji'ye yönelik tutumlarına etkisi, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Sıtkı Koçman Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Muğla. 29.Kabataş Memiş, E. (2011). Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme yaklaşımının ve öz değerlendirmenin ilköğretim öğrencilerinin fen ve teknoloji dersi başarısına ve başarının kalıcılığına etkisi. Doktora Tezi. Atatürk Üniversitesi, Erzurum. 30.Kabataş Memiş, E. (2014). İlköğretim öğrencilerinin argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme yaklaşımı uygulamalarına ilişkin görüşleri. Kastamonu Üniversitesi Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 22(2), 401-418. 31.Namdar, B. ve Demir, A. (2016). Örümcek mi böcek mi? 5. sınıf öğrencileri için argümantasyon tabanlı sınıflandırma etkinliği. Araştırma Temelli Etkinlik Dergisi (ATED), 6(1), 1-9. 32.Okumuş , S. (2012). Maddenin halleri ve ısı ünitesinin bilimsel tartışma (argümantasyon) modeli ile öğretiminin öğrenci başarısına ve anlama düzeylerine etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Trabzon. 33.Öğreten, B. ve Uluçınar Sağır, Ş. (2014). Argümantasyona dayalı fen öğretiminin etkililiğinin incelenmesi. Türk Fen Eğitimi Dergisi, 11(1), 75-100. doi: 10.12973/tused.10104a 34.Özkara, D. (2011). Basınç konusunun 8. sınıf öğrencilerine bilimsel argümantasyona dayalı etkinlikler ile öğretilmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Adıyaman Üniversitesi, Adıyaman. 35.Şahin, E. (2016). Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme yaklaşımının (ATBÖ) üstün yetenekli öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına, üstbiliş ve eleştirel düşünme becerilerine etkisi. Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. 36.Şahin, F., ve Hacıoğlu, Y. (2010). Bilimsel tartışma destekli örnek olayların 8. Sınıf öğrencilerinin “kalıtım” konusunda kavram öğrenmelerine ve okuduğunu anlama becerilerine etkisi. International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, 11-13 November, pp., 269-276, Antalya. 37.Şahintürk, G. Y. (2014). Sosyo-bilimsel tartışma destekli fen etkinliklerinin 8. Sınıf öğrencilerinin yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları ile ilgili farkındalıkları ve içerik bilgisi gelişimine etkisinin incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. 38.Tekeli, A. (2009). Argümantasyon odaklı sınıf ortamının öğrencilerin asit baz konusundaki kavramsal değişimlerine ve bilimin doğasını kavramalarına etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara. 39.Ulu, C., ve Bayram, H. (2015). Yaparak yazarak bilim öğrenme yaklaşımına dayalı öğretim yönteminin bilimsel süreç becerilerine etkisi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (HU Journal of Education), 30(1), 282-298. 40.Uluay, G. (2012). İlköğretim 7. sınıf fen ve teknolji dersi kuvvet ve hareket konusunun öğretiminde bilimsel tartışma (Argümantasyon) Odaklı Öğretim Yönteminin öğrenci başarısına etkisinin incelenmesi . Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Kastamonu Üniversitesi, Kastamonu. 41.Uluçınar Sağır, Ş. (2008). Fen bilgisi dersinde bilimsel tartısma odaklı ögretimin etkililiginin incelenmesi (Doktora Tezi). Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara. 42.Uluçınar-Sağır, Ş. ve Kılıç, Z. (2013). İlköğretım Öğrencilerinin Bilimin Doğasını Anlama Düzeylerine Bilimsel Tartışma Odaklı Öğretimin Etkisi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi [H. U. Journal of Education] 44: 308-318 43.Yeşildağ Hasançebi, F. ve Günel, M. (2013). Argümantasyon tabanlı bilim öğrenme yaklaşımının dezavantajlı öğrencilerin fen bilgisi başarılarına etkisi. İlköğretim Online, 12(4), 1056-1073. Yazar Bilgileri Kevser Bozkurt Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Mail: kevserozver@hotmail.com Kemal İzci Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Dr. Öğretim Üyesi Mail: kizci@konya.edu.tr