14
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
by Julie M. Hansen and Susan E. Allen
F
rom the outset of the Nemea Valley Archaeological Project, one of the primary goals
was to elucidate the subsistence practices of the inhabitants of Tsoungiza from the
earliest period of occupation in the Final Neolithic Period through the Late Bronze Age.
To this end James Wright, the director of the project, established a water-sieving system for
the recovery of macroscopic plant remains, as well as other materials. In analyzing these
remains we sought to identify the crop plants, their associated weeds, wild plant resources,
and wood in order to reconstruct the subsistence system and the site’s environment.
In this chapter we report on the Final Neolithic through Early Helladic III plant remains
from Tsoungiza. These remains present an important opportunity to examine the changes
and developments in the prepalatial Bronze Age in southern Greece. It was during this
period that the plow was first utilized,1 allowing more land to come under cultivation. Recent
archaeological and geological surveys indicate a shift in settlement patterns at the end of
the EH period, and geological studies indicate extensive erosion in some areas. We sought
to elucidate some of these changes through an examination of the plant remains insofar
as they might indicate shifts in agricultural processes, cultivation of marginal areas, and a
possible decline in crop quality toward the end of the Early Bronze Age.
While not abundant, there is sufficient well-preserved plant material to address the
primary questions noted above. The bulk of the FN–EH plant remains from Tsoungiza was
recovered from EU 5. Emmer and einkorn wheat, barley, lentils, and bitter vetch are the
principal crops represented in the EH levels at Tsoungiza. Among the wild food resources,
fig, acorns, pears, pistachios, grapes, and olives are also present. The dominance of pine and
deciduous oak among the wood resources suggests a more wooded environment than that
which exists around the site today. Also of interest are the remains of wetland plants such as
Najus, Schoenus, and Carex, indicating that wet or marshy areas must have existed in the area
during the Early Bronze Age.
PLANT REMAINS
Preservation and Recovery
The plant remains include seeds, fruit, wood, and other plant parts. Most of these were
preserved by carbonization through exposure to fire. While it is clear that some of the EH
structures were destroyed by fire (see, e.g., pp. 320–324, above), other sources for carbonized
plant remains may have been hearths, burning in rubbish pits, or other localized fires. In
most cases the precise means of carbonization is unclear.
1. Pullen 1992, and pp. 580–582, above.
806
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
A few of the remains have been preserved through mineralization, a process that occurs
naturally due to the high concentration of silica or calcium carbonate in the seed coat of
certain species, such as those of the Boraginaceae family (Lithospermum, Anchusa, Echium) or
Ficus. In other instances the cause of mineralization is unclear, as carbonized and mineralized
seeds frequently occur within the same deposit. It should be noted that Boraginaceae grow
in the area today, so it is not certain that those examples found in the excavations are of
ancient origin. In one case such material was found in relatively large quantity in only one
sample within a phase or context (EH I Pit 17, see Table 14.2, below), perhaps indicating
that these were caches of modern or recent seeds deposited by insects or rodents.
The plant remains were recovered primarily through flotation, although some charred
wood was collected by hand during excavation. The method of collection for each sample is
noted in Tables 14.1–14.6, 14.8, and 14.9, below. Sediment from a Stratigraphic Unit (SU) to
be sampled for flotation was taken in its entirety to a sample splitter, where it was measured
in marked 12-liter buckets and divided into smaller units. A subsample ranging from 25%
to 50% of the total was sent to the water sieve and the rest dry-sieved. In SUs in which only a
small amount of sediment was excavated, 100% was water-sieved. Although the buckets used
to measure the sediment were marked in liters, exact measurement was not always possible.
For example, when the quantity of sediment fell between liter marks or when the sediment
was clay-rich and formed clods, estimates to the half-liter were recorded. As is evident from
Tables 14.1–14.6, 14.8, and 14.9 (below), information on the quantity of water-sieved and
excavated sediment was not always recorded.
For the FN–EH III deposits of EU 5, 123 samples were water-sieved. From EU 5, the total
recorded volume of sediment water-sieved was 2,259 liters, a 28% subsample of the 7,930.5 liters excavated. Eleven samples from other excavation units fall into this time frame. From
EH II, two samples each come from EU 2 and EU 3 and one from EU 7; from EH II–III, one
sample is from EU 2; from EH III one sample is from EU 2, one is from EU 6, and three are
from EU 10. Other samples from EU 7 and EU 6 are mixed EH and are also included in this
report.
The water-sieving system used at Tsoungiza consisted of a 1 x 1 m tank into which were fitted two nested screens with mesh of approximately 0.01 m above and 0.055 m below. Water
flowed into this tank through a hose attached to a spigot and was controlled with a valve at
the point of attachment to the tank. When full, the tank overflowed into a 0.001 m screen
that collected floating material such as carbonized plant remains, small bones, shell, and
other light debris. Heavier materials, such as pottery and chipped stone, were collected in
the larger mesh screens in the tank.
The heavy material was dried and sorted by a group of women from the village of Archaia
Nemea. Botanical remains recovered from this material were incorporated into the light
fraction (flot) from the same stratigraphic unit. Other categories of material were distributed
to the relevant specialists.
Sorting and Identification
Samples were sorted completely using a stereo microscope at magnifications between 7x
and 70x. Identifications were made by comparison to modern material in the collection at
the Boston University Department of Archaeology and with the aid of a variety of atlases and
floras.2 Many of the wild plants could not be identified to the species level or, in some cases,
to the genus level, due to a lack of comparative material or the distortion/destruction of
2. Boissier 1867–1888; Beijerink 1947; Musil 1963; Tutin et
al. 1964–1980; Bor 1968.
PLANT REMAINS
807
identifying characteristics caused by carbonization and/or post-depositional processes. In
these instances the plant name is preceded by “cf.” Sometimes it was possible to narrow down
the likely species to a particular type on the basis of morphological characteristics, and these
are identified with the suffix “type” in the plant lists. When neither genus nor species could
be determined, the remains were assigned to a family and are listed under “indeterminate”
in the plant lists. Those seeds for which a family could not be determined are listed as
“Species indet.” Finally, the category “Carbon indet.” consisted of amorphous lumps of
charred botanical material, possibly parenchymatous tissue, that were not identifiable to
plant part or species.
Identified Plant Taxa
The plant remains are divided into several broad categories (see the appendix at the end
of this chapter), following the work of Helmut Kroll in his report on the Kastanas remains.3
On the basis of their identification as domesticated species, many cereals and legumes are
considered as “crops.” A variety of “fruits and nuts” (it is unclear whether any of these were
domesticated) were also identified, and other “useful or medicinal” plants (according to
ethnographic and ancient historical evidence), constitute a third category. “Weeds of cereals”
are those wild plants that are often, but not exclusively, found in this context. “Water plants”
are those that typically occur in wet, swampy, or marshy areas. “Other wild plants” consist
of many species represented by very few seeds each that could not be securely identified to
genus or species. There is little point in assigning these to a particular plant community,
ecological zone, or human use given the uncertainty of the identification.
Contexts and Taphonomy
The following discussion is divided into sections by chronological period or phase as defined by the ceramics analyzed by Daniel Pullen. Tables 14.1–14.6, 14.8, and 14.9 (below)
present the data and provide the following information: the context; Stratigraphic Unit
(SU); collection method, whether by water sieve (WS) or by hand directly from the trench
(T); the approximate number of liters of sediment excavated in that SU; the number of excavated liters watersieved; the sampling percentage that water-sieved volume represents of
the total volume excavated; the species and the plant part identified. Numbers in brackets
are numbers of fragments. For the cereals, it should be noted that any grain with the embryo
intact, regardless of how fragmentary the rest of the grain, was counted as a whole seed. The
total whole seeds and nonwood items (whole plus fragments), as well as the number of items
per liter of sediment water-sieved, are provided at the end of each column. The species list,
with additional information on the habit and habitats of the plants, is presented in the Appendix, pp. 887–891, below.
As noted above, records of volumes excavated or water-sieved are not available for all
samples. Those lacking this information are indicated with a question mark (?). Where
records are incomplete, a plus sign (+) follows the number of liters, and as the number
of items per liter was determined on the basis of the known volume, these density figures
may be inflated. In other instances, the plant remains were recovered both from the watersieved sediment and by hand and are quantified together. In all cases, however, the handcollected material in these deposits was wood charcoal, so the nonwood density per liter is
not affected.
3. Kroll 1983.
808
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
FN PLANT REMAINS
Two Final Neolithic contexts, Pits 27 and 31, were sampled for plant remains (Fig. 14.1,
Table 14.1). Pit 27 yielded very little material and does not warrant further discussion. Three
stratigraphic units (SUs 891–893) and a ceramic vessel (4) from within Pit 31 yielded botanical
material from a total of 40 liters of sediment water-sieved; all three cereal crops, emmer,
einkorn, and barley, are represented (Fig. 14.2). The mixture of several species of legumes such
as bitter vetch, chickpea, and lentil with the cereals in this pit may indicate multiple cropping
during the Final Neolithic. The presence of fruit seeds, such as grape and fig, however, argues
against the use of this pit for storage, and makes agricultural interpretations based upon these
data more tenuous. The mixture of cereals and legumes, as well as a few weed seeds (Avena,
Phalaris) and other material, suggest that this is a secondary deposit, due in part perhaps to
crop cleaning prior to food preparation. The presence of such weed species as Lithospermum,
Galium, and Phalaris, all of which flower in June, may provide evidence for a harvest in mid- or
Water-sieved Deposits
Figure 14.1. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing FN and FN–EH I water-sieved deposits
FN PLANT REMAINS
809
TABLE 14.1. FINAL NEOLITHIC BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA
Pit 27
Pit 31
Pit 31
Pit 31
Pit 31,
Pot 4
SU
859
891
892
893
894
Collection method
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
Vol. deposit (liters)
32
21
16
35
23
127
Vol. deposit sieved (liters)
8
21
5
9
5
48
% deposit sieved
25
100
31
26
22
38
Context
Species
Total
Part
CEREALS
Triticum monococcum
seed
–
3 [1]
2 [2]
[1]
–
5 [4]
Triticum dicoccum
seed
–
2
1
–
–
3
Hordeum sp.
seed
[1]
1 [4]
[1]
[1]
–
1 [7]
Cereal indet.
seed
–
2 [14]
–
[1]
–
2 [15]
Vicia ervilia
seed
–
–
–
5
1
6
Lens sp.
seed
–
–
[1]
–
–
[1]
Ficus carica
seed
–
1
–
–
–
1
cf.Quercus sp.
fruit
–
–
–
[1]
–
[1]
Vicia sp.
seed
–
2 [5]
–
[2]
[10]
2 [17]
Large Lathyrus sativus
seed
–
1 [1]
1
–
–
2 [1]
Small Lathyrus sativus
seed
–
1
–
–
–
1
Avena sp.
seed
–
1
–
–
–
1
Phalaris sp.
seed
–
2
–
–
–
2
Lithospermum arvense
seed
–
–
–
1
–
1
Hordeum cf. murinum
seed
1
–
–
–
–
1
Cruciferae
seed
–
3
1
–
–
4
Leguminosae
seed
–
–
–
[8]
–
[8]
Seed indet.
seed
–
2 [8]
–
[18]
[4]
2 [30]
Capsule fragment indet.
fruit
–
–
–
[3]
–
[3]
1 [1]
21 [33]
5 [4]
6 [35]
1 [14]
34 [87]
Total items nonwood
2
54
9
41
15
121
Items per liter sieved
0.25
2.57
1.8
4.56
3
2.52
9
227
–
197
1
434
LEGUMES
FRUITS AND NUTS
USEFUL/MEDICINAL
WEEDS OF CEREALS
OTHER WILD PLANTS
INDETERMINATE
Total whole seeds
WOOD
Indet.
Key for Tables 14.1–14.9:
SU = Stratigraphic Unit
Collection methods: WS = water sieve; T = trench (i.e., retrieved by hand)
Species counts: unbracketed numbers = whole seeds; bracketed numbers = fragments
+ = present but not counted
810
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
Einkorn
8%
Other Ident.
Seeds
33%
Emmer
3%
Barley
6%
Cereals Indet.
15%
Other Fruit/Nut
1%
Lentil
1%
Bitter Vetch
5%
Grape
0%
Fig
1%
Other Legumes
27%
Figure 14.2. FN Pit 31, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 116)
late summer. As the seeds and capsules of these weedy taxa are indehiscent, their presence
indicates deliberate collection, most likely as an admixture of harvested cereals. Clearly cereals
and legumes were being grown and presumably eaten, but there is little else that can be said
about this deposit or plant use during the Final Neolithic period at Tsoungiza in general.
The one vessel that was sampled is a nearly complete bowl (5) that contained one seed
of bitter vetch and fragments of legumes (Vicia sp.; see Fig. 14.51, below), and may have
been used to hold these in a kitchen/cooking area during food preparation. Small ceramic
scoops 3 and 4 (cf. 13), which may be parts of a single object, found in Pit 31 may also have
been part of the food preparation equipment. Alternatively, the legumes may have fallen
into the vessel after it was deposited in the pit. The Vicia fragments were not identifiable to
species and it was not possible to determine if they were cultivars. The bitter vetch could
have been a weed in a legume crop or a crop plant in its own right.
In terms of comparative material, most of the Late and Final Neolithic sites that have
yielded plant remains are found in northern Greece (Fig. 14.3), whereas Kephala on Kea
and Franchthi Cave are the only southern sites. Legumes are present at nearly all of these
sites, as well as emmer, einkorn, and barley. Bitter vetch is very common on all Late and Final
Neolithic sites, as are lentils and peas. The ubiquity, abundance, and variety of species of
legumes may support the hypothesis of increased legume production in the Late Neolithic
at this time throughout Greece.4 For example, at Kephala a cache of 300 seeds of Lathyrus
sativus may represent a separate crop, and at Franchthi Cave, the number and variety of
legumes increases in the later Neolithic levels.5 This pattern of an increase in the diversity of
legume species represented continues into the Early Helladic levels at Tsoungiza.
EH I PLANT REMAINS
Plant remains from EH I deposits were recovered from Pits 17, 55 and 48, and from Cistern 2
(Table 14.2, Fig. 14.4). The predominant species, einkorn and emmer wheat, barley, lentils,
and bitter vetch, are the same as those found in Pit 31, dated to the Final Neolithic.
4. Renfrew 1972; Sarpaki 1992.
5. Kephala: J. Renfrew 1977; Franchthi Cave: Franchthi 7.
EH I PLANT REMAINS
811
1–Tsoungiza; 2–Franchthi Cave; 3–Synoro; 4–Lerna; 5–Tiryns; 6–Pefkakia; 7–Tsani; 8–Sesklo; 9–Argissa;
10–Servia; 11–Kastanas; 12–Sitagroi (Photolivos); 13–Skoteini; 14–Zas Cave; 15–Debla; 16–Phaistos;
17–Myrtos
Figure 14.3. FN–EH III sites mentioned in the text
Pit 17 is unlined and has a preserved depth of 1.12 m with an estimated volume of 640
liters. This pit contained a mixture of crops, primarily emmer, einkorn, bitter vetch, and
lentil, as well as fig and pistachio (see Fig. 14.5, below). This may be a mixed deposit of food
waste such as floor or hearth sweepings. Of interest is the high concentration of mineralized
gromwell and other Boraginaceae in this pit. As noted above, because these seeds are
uncharred it is difficult to determine their antiquity. Since none of the Boraginaceae species
represented are useful for their seeds, they may be caches of seeds from an insect or rodent
burrow.
Pit 48 is 1.29 m deep and unlined, with an estimated volume of 1,110–1,220 liters. Like
the other pits, it is not associated with remains of a structure, and the characterization of
this pit as an indoor or outdoor feature is not possible (see Fig. 3.1). Cereals and legumes
dominate the samples, with a few possible weed seeds such as canary grass, and small seeded
TABLE 14.2. EARLY HELLADIC I BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA
Context
Pit
17
Pit
17
Pit
17
Pit
17
SU
822
826
829
830
Collection method
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
Vol. deposit (liters)
225
3
16
24
Vol. deposit sieved (liters)
128
3
4
% deposit sieved
57
100
Species
Pit
55
Pit
55
Pit
55
Pit
55
1938
1939
WS
WS
WS
WS, T
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
400
293
97
42
42
40
204
91
207
354
8
120
88
32
42
16
15
51
20
62
85
25
25
33
30
33
100
38
38
25
22
30
24
1935 1936
Pit
55
Pit
55
Pit
48
Pit
48
Pit
48
1940 1941 1961 1962 1964
Pit
48
1967
Part
CEREALS
Triticum monococcum
seed
26 [2]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4 [1]
1
7 [7] 18 [3]
Triticum dicoccum
seed
2
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
Triticum dicoccum
spikelet
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
Triticum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
3
[7]
Triticum sp.
spikelet
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Triticum sp.
glume base
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Hordeum sp.
seed
3 [1]
[1]
–
–
–
–
5 [23]
5 [13]
–
–
6 [4]
[1]
Cereal indet.
seed
[54]
–
–
–
[1]
[2]
9 [14]
[21]
[4]
–
[2]
–
3 [47]
[49]
Vicia ervilia
seed
4
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
Vicia cf. ervilia
seed
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
Vicia faba
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
Lens sp.
seed
3 [8]
–
–
–
–
–
4
–
1
–
12 [3]
–
[10]
1
Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
1
–
cf. Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
Ficus carica
seed
10
–
–
1
[1]
5
1
–
1
–
5
1
Ficus carica
fruit
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Rubus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [2]
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
Pyrus type
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
5 [2]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Pistacia sp.
seed
6 [3]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5
Vitis vinifera
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[5]
–
–
–
Olea europaea
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[2]
[1]
–
–
Vicia sp.
seed
5 [8]
–
–
–
–
–
[2]
–
–
–
[4]
–
cf. Vicia sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lathyrus sativus
seed
1
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lathyrus sp.
seed
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
7 [8]
–
–
–
–
–
–
Hypericum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[2]
–
cf. Malva sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
Avena sp.
seed
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Phalaris sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
cf. Plantago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
6
7
–
2 [2] 3 [10]
LEGUMES
FRUITS AND NUTS
230 [70] 384 [70]
USEFUL/MEDICINAL
1 [7] 10 [19]
WEEDS OF CEREALS
Key: See Table 14.1
TABLE 14.2 (CONT.)
Pit
48
Pit
48
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
1968
1969
2100
WS
T?
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
?
345
?
108
115
104
60
126
200
35
86
58
50
71
72
65
72
58
?
3,663+
69
?
28
30
24
18
34
44
8
24
22
14
17
18
15
18
14
?
1,071+
20
?
26
26
23
30
27
22
23
28
38
28
24
25
23
25
24
?
29
–
6 [1]
–
[1]
2 [1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
143 [36]
3 [2] 2 [1]
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
1
2
2
–
56 [14]
2101 2102 2103 2104 2105 2107 2109 2111 2113 2114 2115 2116 2117 2118 2119
Total
16
–
63 [19]
20 [6]
–
9 [5]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
2 [8]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
5 [17]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
12 [13]
–
10 [14]
–
–
–
–
2 [2]
–
3 [1]
3
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
55 [85]
[65]
–
[173]
[20]
[9]
–
–
[4]
–
[3]
[2]
[3]
–
–
–
–
1
–
13 [473]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
8
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4 [1]
1
–
1
–
–
–
–
[3]
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2 [6]
6
–
13
1
1
–
–
1
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
43 [22]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
24
–
99
103
40
6
33
151
5
–
90
3
2
4
–
–
–
–
1,198 [141]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
[2]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[3]
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4 [2]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
7 [2]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
11 [3]
–
–
1 min?
–
2
–
–
–
8
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
12 [5]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[3]
14 [9]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
30 [49]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5 [1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
2
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
10 [8]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[2]
–
–
[8]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[9]
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
814
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.2 (CONT.)
Pit
17
Pit
17
Pit
17
Pit
17
Pit
55
Pit
55
Part
SU
822
SU
826
SU
829
SU
830
SU
1938
SU
1939
cf. Najas
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [5]
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Schoenus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
1
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Carex sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Rumex sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Polygonum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Chenopodium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
Adonis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
Fumaria sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
6
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Alchemilla sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Astragalus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
Astragalus/Trigonella sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[7]
–
–
–
–
–
–
Astragalus/Trifolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
Galium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
Lithospermum arvense
seed
237
–
–
5
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Anchusa sp.
seed
24
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
Echium sp.
seed
73
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
1?
–
–
–
cf. Lapsana sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
Cruciferae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Leguminosae
seed
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
[7]
–
1
[1]
[20]
–
[36]
[2]
Labiatae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
Rosaceae indet.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
Gramineae indet.
culm
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
Small Gramineae indet.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Species indet. Type 1
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Species indet.
seed
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
10 [1]
–
[15]
–
1
–
4 [66]
[12]
Nonwood carbon indet.
mass
[1]
–
–
–
[15]
[9]
[52]
[76]
[9]
–
[296]
–
[45]
–
Total whole seeds
395
–
1
8
1
5
282
416
8
0
34
1
37
50
Total items nonwood
475
1
2
8
18
16
456
616
36
1
373
5
259
152
Items per liter sieved
3.7
0.33
0.5
1
0.15
0.18
14.25
14.67
2.25
0.07
7.3
0.25
4.18
1.8
Pinus sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5
–
–
–
–
–
Quercus pubescens type
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Olea europaea
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Indet.
–
48
–
1
31
24
76
116
123
73
41
3
189
33
–
48
–
1
31
24
78
116
128
73
41
3
189
33
Species
Pit
55
Pit
55
SU
SU
1935 1936
Pit
55
Pit
55
Pit
48
Pit
48
Pit
48
SU
SU
SU
SU
SU
1940 1941 1961 1962 1964
Pit
48
SU
1967
WATER PLANTS
OTHER WILD PLANTS
INDETERMINATE
WOOD
Total wood fragments
EH I PLANT REMAINS
815
TABLE 14.2 (CONT.)
Pit
48
Pit
48
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
Cis
2
SU
1968
SU
1969
SU
2100
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [5]
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
11
–
–
1
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
5
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
9
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[7]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
243
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
26
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
76
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
9 [26]
–
[2]
–
–
–
–
[6]
–
[5]
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
10 [107]
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
[6]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2 [6]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
[1]
–
[3]
6
[1]
2
3
1
5
–
–
[13]
5
2
–
–
–
–
39 [113]
[71]
–
[12]
–
–
–
–
1
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [587]
115
?
206
113
57
8
38
160
19
6
93
3
8
6
2
2
3
0
2,076 [1,709]
321
?
442
136
69
8
39
177
19
17
99
19
8
6
2
2
4
1
3,785
4.65
?
15.8
4.5
2.9
0.44
1.15
4.02
2.38
0.71
4.5
1.36
0.47
0.33
0.13
0.11
0.29
?
3.53
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
262
–
+
–
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1,021
262
2
+
0
+
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1,030
SU
SU
SU
SU
SU
SU
SU
SU
SU
SU
SU
SU
SU
SU
SU
2101 2102 2103 2104 2105 2107 2109 2111 2113 2114 2115 2116 2117 2118 2119
Total
816
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
Water-sieved Deposits
Figure 14.4. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH I water-sieved deposits
legumes, but relatively little in the way of fruit, nuts, or other remains (Fig. 14.6). The density of wheat and barley remains may indicate the use of this pit for storage. If so, the presence of wheat, barley, and pulses together would suggest multiple cropping, with the barley
and wheat perhaps grown together as maslin.6 Further, the weed species Echium, Erodium,
Lolium, and Lithospermum arvense, all indehiscent, may suggest a late-spring or early-summer
harvest. The crop species represented are all suitable for growth in limestone soils such as
those near Tsoungiza. The climate of the region would allow a winter crop with a late-spring
or early-summer harvest.
The presence of grape and fig, both ripening in late summer to fall, suggests exploitation
of wild resources as well during these seasons. As in Pit 31, however, the presence of these
fruits may also argue against the interpretation of Pit 48 as a storage facility, and would
6. Hansen 1988; Jones and Halstead 1995.
EH I PLANT REMAINS
Einkorn
6%
Emmer
0%
Barley
1%
817
Cereals Indet.
11%
Lentil
2%
Bitter Vetch
1%
Other Legumes
3%
Fig
2%
Grape
0%
Other Ident.
Seeds*
74%
Other Fruit/Nut
2%
Other Legumes
* Boraginaceae make up 99.7%
of these (334/335).
Figure 14.5. EH I Pit 17, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 474)
support its function as a refuse pit. The plant material in Pit 48 may be the remains of food
burned while cooking and/or dropped into the hearth. Wood charcoal, all unidentifiable,
was also common in this pit and also argues against its use for storage. Pit 48 may be a refuse
context with the remains of hearth sweepings disposed of in it.
Pit 55 has a preserved depth of 0.93 m and a clay lining, and therefore originally may have
been a storage pit. It is not associated with any remains of a structure so we cannot determine
if it was originally inside or outside a building. The estimated preserved volume of the pit is
Other Ident.
Seeds
18%
Einkorn
7%
Emmer
5%
Other Fruit/Nut
1%
Barley
7%
Grape
1%
Fig
4%
Cereals Indet.
23%
Other
Legumes
26%
Bitter Vetch
1%
Lentil
6%
Figure 14.6. EH I Pit 48, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 469)
818
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
Other Ident.
Seeds
7%
Other
Fruit/Nut
1%
Einkorn
0%
Grape
0%
Emmer
0%
Barley
5%
Cereals Indet.
5%
Lentil
1%
Bitter Vetch
0%
Other
Legumes
4%
Fig
77%
Figure 14.7. EH I Pit 55, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 980)
420–490 liters. The bulk of the plant remains come from two samples (SUs 1938, 1939), the
location of which suggests that most of the carbonized material comes from approximately
the central 0.21 m of the pit’s depth and may represent a single episode of deposition.
Fig seeds predominate in Pit 55, making up 77% of the seed remains (Fig. 14.7). In
addition, seeds of raspberry and pear are also present. These are the types of seeds one might
expect from a latrine deposit,7 and one explanation for the origin of the plant remains in Pit
55 might be human waste that was later burned. Several small-seeded legumes (Astragalus/
Trigonella/Trifolium) may have been weeds in a legume crop that were collected along with
the lentils or bitter vetch. Among the cereals, there are a few grains of barley and others
that are unidentified, but no identifiable wheat. Weeds present in the pit, including Adonis,
Hypericum, Lapsana, Medicago, Potentilla, and Schoenus, are species that ripen in late spring
and suggest a late-spring harvest. The predominance of barley and the paucity of pulse
crops may indicate single cropping of barley. The edaphic requirements of all of the weed
species are similar to those of barley, and it is possible that these taxa were growing in a field
of this cereal.
In addition to carbonized plant remains, this pit contained several mineralized seeds,
including fig (3), Potentilla (2), and Hypericum (1). Use of the pit as a latrine may explain
the mineralized condition of some seeds, but the low frequency of mineralized seeds argues
against this interpretation.
Pit 55 also yielded many fragments of “carbon indet.” that may be remains of some type
of parenchymatous tissue from a root or tuber. They do not appear to be fragments of
pear fruit, as the characteristic schlerenchyma cells are not present, nor are they fig as they
contain no seeds that are invariably present in the fruit fragments of this species. Bogrush
seeds are also present in this deposit and it is possible that the carbon indet. fragments
are pieces of tuber from this plant. These grow primarily in standing or slow-moving water
and would have been present along the river or in marshy areas of the valley. The stems of
bogrush might have been collected for use as matting or for some other purpose. If the
7. Carruthers 1991; Wiethold 1992.
EH I PLANT REMAINS
Other Ident. Seeds
8%
Einkorn
1%
Other Fruit/Nut
1%
Emmer
2%
819
Barley
2% Cereals Indet.
6%
Lentil
1%
Bitter Vetch
0%
Grape
2%
Other Legumes
3%
Fig
74%
Figure 14.8. EH I Cistern 2, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 532)
rushes were harvested by simply pulling them up from the soft mud, then the tubers would
have been collected as well. The seeds also could have been brought to the site in this way.
The tubers of various species of rush are edible8 and it is possible that these fragments
represent carbonized food remains, too.
Seeds identified as naiad (Najas major), another wetland species, were also recovered from
Pit 55. The fruits of this plant are inedible, as are most other parts of the plant. Usher
notes that the leaves of Najas major are eaten as a salad in Hawaii,9 but such a use would
not necessarily have resulted in the fruit and seeds being brought to the site. As neither the
bogrush nor naiad would have been harvested with a cereal or legume crop, their presence
in the pit indicates that, at least in its final use, this pit probably contained a mixed deposit of
refuse from several sources rather than debris from crop processing activities or the storage
of a crop.
Compared to the other EH I contexts, Cistern 2 (see Fig. 3.6) produced relatively little
plant material relative to the amount of sediment water-sieved (see Figs. 14.9–14.11, below).
The deposits of this feature are dominated by fig seeds (Fig. 14.8): constituting 74% of
the seed remains, with other fruit seeds such as raspberry (Rubus sp.), pear, and grape also
present. As noted above in the discussion of Pit 55, these are the types of plant remains
one might expect to find in a latrine deposit, and some of the material is mineralized as is
common in a latrine deposit.10 In addition, the sediment from this context appeared to be
comminuted plant material. No identifiable remains were retrieved from the comminuted
material, however.
Another interesting difference between Cistern 2 and the pit deposits is the lack of nonedible plants in the cistern, except for one Carex and two Adonis seeds. This is difficult to explain if Cistern 2 was used as a refuse dump, unless only selected refuse was deposited in
it. Therefore, it seems most likely that the cistern was used at some point for deposition of
human waste rather than general household refuse.
8. Hillman 1989; Moore, Hillman, and Legge 2000.
9. Usher 1974, p. 405.
10. Green 1979; Carruthers 1991.
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
4.5
4.5
44
3.5
3.5
33
2.5
2.5
22
1.5
1.5
11
0.5
0.5
00
No. Items/L
No. Items/L
820
Pit 17
17
Pit
Pit 55
55
Pit
Pit 48
Pit
48
Cistern 22
Cistern
4
3.5
No. Items/L
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Pit 17
Pit 55
Pit 48
Cistern 2
Figure 14.9. EH I density of nonwood items (top), and of nonwood items excluding fig (bottom), by context
With the exception of fig seeds, there are relatively few remains overall in any of the
EH I deposits. Figure 14.9 (top) illustrates the density of remains as a ratio of the number of
items (whole and fragmentary seeds and other nonwood plant parts) per liter of sediment
water-sieved for each context. The three pits have a higher density of remains than the
cistern and, to some extent, this is due to the large number of fig seeds. Fig seeds tend
to be overrepresented because of the high quantity present per fig fruit (1,300 or more)
and the high silica content of the seed coats, which gives them a better chance of being
preserved. Figure 14.9 (bottom) is a comparison of density among the different contexts
with fig removed from the sum. This indicates that the majority of nonwood items in Pit 55
were fig seeds and that Pits 17 and 48 had a greater density of other plant remains than did
Pit 55.
The various EH I contexts display quite different densities of emmer, einkorn, barley,
bitter vetch, and lentil (Fig. 14.10), although the overall density of these contexts is very low,
less than two seeds per 10 liters of sediment. Einkorn wheat occurs in Pits 17 and 48, is rare
in Cistern 2 and absent from Pit 55. There is a greater density of emmer wheat and barley in
Pit 48 than in other contexts, while bitter vetch and lentils are less well represented in Pit 48
than in other pits. It is interesting that the plant remains in Cistern 2, a context in which one
might expect good preservation of refuse deposits, are less dense than in the other contexts.
Perhaps this feature was used only briefly for waste disposal.
A positive correlation between the quantity of material recovered and the quantity of
sediment water-sieved is indicated by a comparison of the volume of sediment water-sieved,
expressed as a percentage of all EH I sediment water-sieved, and the quantity of nonwood
items recovered from each context expressed as a percentage of all EH I nonwood items
(Fig. 14.11). In Cistern 2, however, little plant material was recovered relative to the amount
EH 1–II PLANT REMAINS
821
2.5
Seeds per 10 L
2
Einkorn
Einkorn
1.5
Emmer
Emmer
Barley
Barley
1
Bitter Vetch
Bitter
vetch
0.5
Lentil
Lentil
0
Pit 17
Pit 55
Pit 48
Cistern 2
Figure 14.10. EH I density of species per 10 liters of sediment water-sieved, by context
Percentage
40
40
Percent of
Total Sediment
Water-sieved
(n = 1,019 L)
35
35
Watersieved
(n=1019L)
Percent of
Wood Items
Recoveredl (n=3274)
25
25
20
20
Percent of
Total Nonwood
Items Recovered
(n = 3,274)
15
15
Percentage
Percentage
Percent
30
30
10
10
Percent of
Sediment
Watersieved
(n=1019L)
Context
5
5
0
0
Pit 17
Pit 17
Pit 55
Pit 55
Context
Pit 48
Cistern 2
Pit 48
Cistern 2
Figure 14.11. EH I comparison of percentage water-sieved and percentage of items recovered, by context
Context
of water-sieving done, despite the probability that it was used for human waste and the wet,
acidic preservation conditions would have been favorable. This further indicates that the
paucity of plant remains in Cistern 2 reflects the actual presence or absence of botanical
material rather than being an artifact of the sampling strategy.
Comparative material
We are aware of no reports of plant remains from any other EH I site in Greece.
EH I–II PLANT REMAINS
Pit 32 contained mixed EH I–II deposits; these were water-sieved and yielded wheat, barley,
numerous unidentifiable cereal grains, along with lentils and other legumes, fig seeds, and
a few other wild seeds (Table 14.3, Figs. 14.12, 14.13). This feature is unlined, 0.88 m in
preserved depth, and approximately 420–460 liters in volume. It is not associated with any
architecture or floor surface, and Pullen (pp. 55–56, above) notes that “Pit 32 does seem to
be transitional, with its combinations of fabrics, surface treatments, and shapes of both EH I
and EH II.” SU 2014 in Pit 32 has a significantly greater density of material than the other
units in this pit, but, as with many other samples at Tsoungiza, this figure is inflated by the
overrepresentation of fig seeds.
822
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.3. EARLY HELLADIC I–II BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA
Context
Pit 32
Pit 32
Pit 32
Pit 32
Pit 32
SU
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Collection method
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
Vol. deposit (liters)
76
56
57
74
44
307
Vol. deposit sieved (liters)
22
10
12
20
10
74
% deposit seived
29
18
21
27
23
24
Species
Total
Part
CEREALS
Triticum monococcum
seed
–
–
2
1
–
3
Triticum dicoccum
seed
1 [5]
1
–
–
–
2 [5]
Triticum sp.
seed
–
[13]
4 [16]
[5]
–
4 [34]
Hordeum sp.
seed
7
2 [3]
5 [23]
[14]
–
14 [40]
Cereal indet.
seed
[8]
–
[5]
[46]
[2]
[61]
cf. Cicer sp.
seed
1
–
–
–
–
1
Vicia ervilia
seed
–
–
2
–
–
2
Lens sp.
seed
–
2
1
[3]
–
3 [3]
Ficus carica
seed
12
1
26
1
1
41
Fruit indet.
fruit
[1]
–
–
–
–
[1]
Vicia sp.
seed
2 [3]
–
5
[1]
–
7 [4]
Lathyrus sp.
seed
1
–
–
–
–
1
Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
–
1
–
1
seed
–
1
–
–
–
1
seed
–
1
1
–
–
2
Cruciferae
seed
[1]
–
–
1
–
1 [1]
Leguminosae
seed
[1]
–
–
–
–
[1]
Seed
seed
[15]
–
2
–
–
2 [15]
Total whole seeds
24
8
48
4
1
85 [165]
Total items nonwood
58
24
92
73
3
250
Items per liter sieved
2.64
2.4
7.67
3.65
0.3
3.38
11
–
40
–
–
51
LEGUMES
FRUITS AND NUTS
USEFUL/MEDICINAL
WEEDS OF CEREALS
cf. Bromus sp.
OTHER WILD PLANTS
Anchusa sp.
INDETERMINATE
WOOD
Indet.
Key: See Table 14.1
The mixed nature of the ceramics, the presence of items such as a bronze dagger, and the
mixture of cereals, legumes, and a few wild seeds suggest that this pit contained a generalized
rubbish deposit.
EH II PLANT REMAINS
823
Water-sieved Deposits
Figure 14.12. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH I–II water-sieved deposits
EH II PLANT REMAINS
The Early Helladic II deposits have been subdivided into four phases on the basis of the
ceramic assemblages. The EH II plant remains are presented in Tables 14.4a–d according
to these subdivisions. A fifth group of EH II samples for which the ceramics did not allow
assignment to a subphase are discussed as EH II phase unknown (Table 14.4e). Unlike the
EH I samples, many EH II samples lack documentation of the volumes of sediment excavated
and water-sieved, so that it is not possible to calculate the density of remains in these contexts.
EH II Initial
Only one liter of sediment was water-sieved from an EH II Initial context. This sample, from
Fill 12, produced only a few legumes. Fill 12 is in the Southeast Sector of EU 5 immediately
es
m
gu
Le
er
th
O
824
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
Other Fruit/Nut
0%
Grape
0%
Other Ident.
Seeds
9%
Einkorn
1%
Emmer
3%
Barley
22%
Fig
16%
Other Legumes
6%
Bitter Vetch
1%
Lentil
2%
Cereals Indet.
40%
Figure 14.13. EH I–II Pit 32, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 249)
above Pits 61 and 62, also of EH II Initial date (Table 14.4a, Fig. 14.14), and Pit 65, which is
dated to EH I. The fill is probably associated with Pits 61 and 62, as well as Fill 8 and Wall 38
to the west. Fill 12 contained some later EH II material so its date is not certain. Fill 8 was
not water-sieved, although the excavator collected several fragments of fig. Associated with
these deposits may be several possible postholes forming a zigzag line southeast of Wall 39.
No botanical remains that might shed light on these features were recovered, however.
EH II Developed Phase 1
Six contexts (Pits 35, 36, 56, Surfaces 1 and 2, and Fill 10/1) dated to EH II Developed
Phase 1 were sampled and a total of 346 liters of sediment were water-sieved (Fig. 14.15).
Figure 14.16 is a plot of the volume of sediment water-sieved for each context, expressed
as a percentage of all EH II Developed Phase 1 sediment water-sieved, and the number of
nonwood items recovered from each context expressed as a percentage of all items from
these contexts. These data indicate distributional variability in the density of remains in
the different contexts that may be related to the use of the context and/or the quality of
the preservation of material. Of interest here is the relatively small percentage of sediment
water-sieved from Surface 1 (44 liters, 13%) and the high percentage of items recovered (n
= 475, 62%). In contrast, 49% (167 liters) of the water-sieved sediment came from Pit 56
while this produced only 7% (n = 52) of the plant remains from this subphase. The other
contexts show closer relationships between the percentage of sediment water-sieved and the
percentage of plant items recovered.
Surface 1 covered much of the southeastern portion of EU 5, but only two samples were
water-sieved. Surface 1 has been interpreted as a courtyard to the south and east of House A,
and so the botanical remains were not derived from a storage context, interior floor surface,
hearth, or other interior feature. Of the Surface 1 deposits, SU 1944 contained the most
plant remains (Fig. 14.17), as well as most of the plant material from EH II Developed Phase
1 overall. Cereals predominate in the Surface 1 deposits, and many legumes are also present
(Fig. 14.18). The concentration of cereal and legume seeds, with no chaff and only three
“weed” seeds, suggests that the deposit represents cooking waste.
EH II PLANT REMAINS
825
TABLE 14.4A. EARLY HELLADIC II INITIAL BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA
Context
Fill 8
Fill 12
Fill 12
SU
1959
884
886
T
WS
T
Collection method
Vol. deposit (liters)
Species
1
Total
–
Vol. deposit sieved (liters)
0
1
0
1
% deposit seived
–
100
–
–
Part
CEREALS
Triticum monococcum
seed
–
–
–
0
Triticum monococcum
spikelet fork
–
–
–
0
Triticum dicoccum
seed
–
–
–
0
Triticum dicoccum
spikelet fork
–
–
–
0
Triticum sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Triticum sp.
glume base
–
–
–
0
Triticum sp.
rachis
–
–
–
0
Hordeum sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Hordeum sp.
rachis
–
–
–
0
Cereal indet.
seed
–
–
–
0
Cereal indet.
awn
–
–
–
0
Cereal indet.
rachis
–
–
–
0
Cicer arietinum
seed
–
–
–
0
Vicia ervilia
seed
–
2
–
2
Vicia faba
seed
–
–
–
0
Lens sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Ficus carica
seed
–
–
–
0
Ficus carica
fruit
[12]
–
–
[12]
Rubus sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Prunus dulcis
seed
–
–
–
0
Pyrus type
seed
–
–
–
0
Pyrus type
fruit
–
–
–
0
Vitis vinifera
seed
–
–
–
0
Vitis vinifera
pedicel
–
–
–
0
Olea europaea
pit
–
–
–
0
fruit
–
–
–
0
seed
–
–
–
0
LEGUMES
FRUITS AND NUTS
Fruit indet.
FIBER PLANTS
cf. Linum sp.
Key: See Table 14.1
826
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.4A (CONT.)
Species
Part
SU 1959
SU 884
SU 886
Total
Vicia sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Lathyrus sp.
seed
–
[2]
–
[2]
cf. Lathyrus sativus
seed
–
–
–
0
Medicago lupulina type
seed
–
–
–
0
Medicago hispida type
seed
–
–
–
0
Medicago cf. minima
seed
–
–
–
0
Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Medicago type 2
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Hypericum sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Malva sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Malva sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Lolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Bromus sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Avena sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Phalaris sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Najus sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Scirpus sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Carex sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Carex sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Polygonum sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Beta sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Spergula sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Chenopodium sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Adonis sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Alchemilla sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Trifolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Trifolium/Astragalus
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Trigonella/Trifolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Cucumis sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Galium sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Echium sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Anchusa sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Myosotis sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Galeopsis sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Lamium sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
USEFUL/MEDICINAL
WEEDS OF CEREALS
WATER PLANTS
OTHER WILD PLANTS
EH II PLANT REMAINS
827
TABLE 14.4A (CONT.)
Species
Part
SU 1959
SU 884
SU 886
Total
cf. Melissa sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Veronica sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Cirsium sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Ruppia sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Scorpiurus sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Solanum sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Filago sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
cf. Arum sp.
seed
–
–
–
0
Polygonaceae
seed
–
–
–
0
Cruciferae
seed
–
–
–
0
Leguminosae
seed
–
[5]
–
[5]
Leguminosae small
seed
–
–
–
0
Boraginaceae
seed
–
–
–
0
Compositae
seed
–
–
–
0
Small Gramineae indet.
seed
–
–
–
0
Gramineae indet.
culm
–
–
–
0
Gramineae indet.
culm node
–
–
–
0
Gramineae indet.
aerial root
–
–
–
0
Species indet.
seed
–
–
–
0
Species indet. Type 2
seed
–
–
–
0
Species indet. Type 3
seed
–
–
–
0
Species indet. Type 4
seed
–
–
–
0
Species indet. Type 5
seed
–
–
–
0
Monocotyledonae
seed
–
–
–
0
unknown
–
–
–
0
shell
–
–
–
0
0 [12]
2 [7]
0
2 [19]
Total items nonwood
12
9
0
21
Items per liter sieved
–
9
–
9
Pinus sp.
–
–
–
0
Quercus pubescens type
–
–
–
0
cf. Platanus sp.
–
–
–
0
cf. Pyrus sp.
–
–
–
0
Olea europaea
–
–
2?
2?
Indet.
–
–
–
0
0
0
2?
2?
INDETERMINATE
Carbon indet.
Nutshell
Total whole seeds
WOOD
Total wood fragments
828
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.4B. EARLY HELLADIC II DEVELOPED PHASE 1 BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA
Context Floor 6 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35
SU
Pit 35
Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 36
Pot
848
1911
1912
1913
1914
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1922
1984
Collection method
T
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
Vol. deposit (liters)
0
35
29
39
33+
12
46
46
38
47
22
40
34
Vol. deposit sieved (liters)
0
7
6
7
6+
12
10
16
10
9
4
8
12
% deposit sieved
0
20
21
18
18+
100
22
35
26
19
18
20
35
Species
Part
CEREALS
Triticum monococcum
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Triticum monococcum
spikelet fork
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Triticum dicoccum
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Triticum dicoccum
spikelet fork
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Triticum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Triticum sp.
glume base
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Triticum sp.
rachis
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Hordeum sp.
seed
–
–
[1]
2
–
–
–
[2]
1?
–
–
–
–
Hordeum sp.
rachis
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Cereal indet.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
Cereal indet.
awn
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Cereal indet.
rachis
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Cicer arietinum
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Vicia ervilia
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
Vicia faba
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lens sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
1
–
[1]
–
–
–
Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Ficus carica
seed
–
9
–
3
21
2
5
3
3
9
Ficus carica
fruit
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Rubus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Prunus dulcis
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
Pyrus type
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Pyrus type
fruit
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Vitis vinifera
seed
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
Vitis vinifera
pedicel
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Olea europaea
pit
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
fruit
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
LEGUMES
FRUITS AND NUTS
Fruit indet.
19 [2] 53 [1]
FIBER PLANTS
cf. Linum sp.
Key: See Table 14.1
EH II PLANT REMAINS
829
TABLE 14.4B (CONT.)
Fill
Fill 25
10/1
Pit 56 Sur
Pit 56 Pit 56 Pit 56
Pot
1
Sur 1
1942
1945
1948
1948
882
1944
750
864
865
873
876
1901
1904
1905
1952
817
818
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
WS
T
WS
T
180
267
32
1
10
34
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
90
0
54
80
32
1
10
34
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
28
0
30
30
100
100
100
100
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
100
–
31
–
–
[1]
1
–
–
72 [27]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4 [1]
–
77 [29]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
1
–
–
–
3 [1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3 [1]
–
7 [2]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
[1]
–
–
–
[2?]
18 [65]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[2?]
–
4 [8]
–
25 [81]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
[2]
–
–
7 [192]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [9]
–
9 [203]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
12 [5]
–
15 [7]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
1
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
5
–
135 [3]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0 [1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0 [1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2
Total
830
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.4B (CONT.)
Floor 6 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35
Pit 35
Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 36
Pot
Part
SU
848
SU
1911
SU
1912
SU
1913
SU
1914
SU
1914
SU
1915
SU
1916
SU
1917
SU
1918
SU
1919
SU
1922
SU
1984
Vicia sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Lathyrus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Lathyrus sativus
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Medicago lupulina type
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Medicago hispida type
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Medicago cf. minima
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Medicago type 2
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Hypericum sp.
seed
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Malva sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Malva sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Bromus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Avena sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Phalaris sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Najus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Scirpus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Carex sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Carex sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Polygonum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Beta sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Spergula sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Chenopodium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Adonis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Alchemilla sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Trifolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Trifolium/Astragalus
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Trigonella/Trifolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Cucumis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Galium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Echium sp.
seed
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Anchusa sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Myosotis sp.
seed
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Galeopsis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Species
USEFUL/MEDICINAL
WEEDS OF CEREALS
WATER PLANTS
OTHER WILD PLANTS
EH II PLANT REMAINS
831
TABLE 14.4B (CONT.)
Fill
Fill 25
10/1
Pit 56
Sur 1
Pit 56 Pit 56 Pit 56
Pot
Sur 1
SU
1942
SU
1945
SU
1948
SU
1948
SU
882
SU
1944
SU
750
SU
864
SU
865
SU
873
SU
876
SU
1901
SU
1904
SU
1905
SU
1952
SU
817
SU
818
5?
–
–
–
–
24 [27]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
29 [27]
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
2 [1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3 [1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
2?
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1?
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
3
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
4
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2
Total
832
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.4B (CONT.)
Floor 6 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35
Pit 35
Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 36
Pot
Part
SU
848
SU
1911
SU
1912
SU
1913
SU
1914
SU
1914
SU
1915
SU
1916
SU
1917
SU
1918
SU
1919
SU
1922
SU
1984
cf. Lamium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Melissa sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Veronica sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Cirsium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Ruppia sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Scorpiurus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Solanum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Filago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Arum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Polygonaceae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Cruciferae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Leguminosae
seed
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
3
[1]
–
Leguminosae small
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Boraginaceae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Compositae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Small Gramineae indet.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Gramineae indet.
culm
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Gramineae indet.
culm node
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Gramineae indet.
aerial root
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Species indet.
seed
–
–
–
–
10
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
1
Species indet. Type 2
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Species indet. Type 3
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Species indet. Type 4
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Species indet. Type 5
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Monocotyledonae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
unknown
–
–
–
–
–
–
[2]
–
–
–
[1]
[8]
[1]
shell
–
–
–
–
–
–
[4]
–
–
–
–
–
–
Total whole seeds
0
10
0 [1]
8
32 [2]
2
6
3 [1]
3 [1]
Total items nonwood
0
10
[1]
8
34
2
29
59
6
4
4
13
12
Items per liter sieved
–
1.4
0.2
1.1
5.7
0.2
2.9
3.7
0.6
0.4
1
1.6
1
Pinus sp.
4
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
1
–
Quercus pubescens type
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Platanus sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Pyrus sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Olea europaea
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
Indet.
4
–
2
12
–
4
61
214
94
206
8
30
17
8
0
2
12
0
4
61
217
94
206
8
31
17
Species
INDETERMINATE
Carbon indet.
Nutshell
20 [9] 56 [3]
4 [9] 11 [1]
WOOD
Total wood fragments
EH II PLANT REMAINS
833
TABLE 14.4B (CONT.)
Fill
Fill 25
10/1
Pit 56 Pit 56 Pit 56
Pit 56
Sur 1
Pot
Sur 1
SU
1942
SU
1945
SU
1948
SU
1948
SU
882
SU
1944
SU
750
SU
864
SU
865
SU
873
SU
876
SU
1901
SU
1904
SU
1905
SU
1952
SU
817
SU
818
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
[1]
[1]
[2]
–
–
[24]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
6 [30]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
[2]
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3 [9]
–
17 [11]
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
[13]
–
[6]
[3]
–
[4]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[10]
–
–
–
[48]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[4]
0
0 [1]
0
0
0
0
0
2 [12]
0
41 [33]
0
349 [449]
798
7 [15] 1 [4] 8 [12] 2 [3] 2 [2?] 131 [340]
Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2
22
5
20
5
4
471
0
[1]
0
0
0
0
0
14
0
74
0
0.4
0.06
0.6
5
0.4
13.9
–
–
–
–
–
0
0
1.75
0
2.6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
12
–
5
–
1
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
2
–
5
–
–
1
9
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
–
7
1
–
–
4
2
–
+
3
280
11
9
4
–
45
–
44
–
–
131
–
116
1
+
3
280
11
9
4
3
48
4
46
19
6
131
6
132
1
5
Total
TABLE 14.4C. EARLY HELLADIC II DEVELOPED PHASES 2 AND 3 BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA
SUBPHASE
DEVELOPED PHASE 2
Context
SU
Species
DEVELOPED PHASE 3
Burnt
Room
Burnt
Room
Burnt
Room
Floor 10
Burnt
Room
Floor 10
Burnt
Room
Floor 11
Fill 28
Fill 13
Fill 21
Fill 24
Pit 21
Sur 2
Fill 14
746
748
749*
759
753*
758
784
777
745
812
750
765
T
T
T
WS
T
WS
–
–
4
–
33
Collection method
T
T
WS
WS
WS, T
WS, T
Vol. deposit (liters)
0
0
1,450
100
1,174+
100
Vol. sieved (liters)
0
0
369
10
272+
20
0
0
0
4
0
33
% deposit sieved
0
0
25
10
23
20
–
–
–
100
–
100
Total
Total
Part
CEREALS
Triticum monococcum
seed
–
–
[2]
–
–
–
–
–
–
0 [2]
–
–
[2]
0 [2]
Triticum monococcum
spikelet fork
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
1
1
Triticum dicoccum
seed
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
[2]
0 [2]
Triticum dicoccum
spikelet fork
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
0
Triticum sp.
seed
–
–
1 [3]
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
1 [4]
–
–
–
0
Triticum sp.
glume base
–
–
1
–
1
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
0
Triticum sp.
rachis
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
0
Hordeum sp.
seed
[1]
–
11 [11]
–
4 [7]
–
–
–
–
15 [19]
–
–
[3]
[3]
Hordeum sp.
rachis
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
1
1
Cereal indet.
seed
2
–
27 [22]
–
6 [22]
–
–
–
–
35 [44]
–
–
[7]
[7]
Cereal indet.
awn
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
Cereal indet.
rachis
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
0
Cicer arietinum
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
[2]
[2]
Vicia ervilia
seed
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
0
Vicia faba
seed
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
1
1
Lens sp.
seed
–
–
4
–
6 [7]
–
–
–
–
10 [7]
–
–
27 [10]
27 [10]
Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
1
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
[1]
–
–
[1]
cf. Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
Ficus carica
seed
4
–
124 [34]
–
302
–
–
–
–
430 [34]
–
–
12
12
Ficus carica
fruit
1?
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
–
–
–
0
LEGUMES
FRUITS AND NUTS
Key: See Table 14.1
*See Square Meter Unit breakdown in Tables 14.5 and 14.6.
TABLE 14.4C (CONT.)
SUBPHASE
DEVELOPED PHASE 2
DEVELOPED PHASE 3
Burnt
Room
Burnt
Room
Burnt
Room
Floor 10
Burnt
Room
Floor 10
Burnt
Room
Floor 11
Fill 28
Fill 13
Fill 21
Fill 24
Pit 21
Sur 2
Fill 14
Part
SU 746
SU 748
SU 749*
SU 759
SU 753*
SU 758
SU 784
SU 777
SU 745
Total
SU 812
SU 750
SU 765
Total
Rubus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
Prunus dulcis
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
Pyrus type
seed
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
0
Pyrus type
fruit
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
2
–
1?
–
1
Vitis vinifera
seed
–
–
18 [24]
–
2 [39]
–
–
–
–
20 [63]
–
[1]
[1]
[2]
Vitis vinifera
pedicel
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
2
–
2
Olea europaea
pit
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
Fruit indet.
fruit
–
–
6
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
6 [1]
–
–
[3]
[3]
seed
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
0 [1]
–
–
–
0
Vicia sp.
seed
–
–
3 [1]
–
1 [1]
–
–
–
–
4 [1]
–
–
–
0
cf. Lathyrus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
[2]
–
–
–
–
0 [2]
–
–
–
0
cf. Lathyrus sativus
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
Medicago lupulina type
seed
–
–
15
–
–
–
–
–
–
15
–
–
–
0
Medicago hispida type
seed
–
–
12
–
–
–
–
–
–
12
–
–
–
0
Medicago cf. minima
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
0
Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
18
–
3
–
–
–
–
21
–
–
[1]
[1]
Medicago type 2
seed
–
–
8
–
–
–
–
–
–
8
–
–
–
0
cf. Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
[1]
–
1 [1]
–
–
–
–
1 [2]
–
–
1
1
cf. Hypericum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
Malva sp.
seed
–
–
17
–
8
–
–
–
–
25
–
–
–
0
cf. Malva sp.
seed
–
–
[1]
–
1
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
–
–
–
0
Lolium sp.
seed
–
–
6 [15]
–
[3]
–
–
–
–
6 [18]
–
–
–
0
cf. Bromus sp.
seed
–
–
1 [1]
–
2
–
–
–
–
3 [1]
–
–
1
1
Avena sp.
seed
–
–
2 [3]
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
2 [4]
–
–
–
0
Phalaris sp.
seed
–
–
16
–
–
–
–
–
–
16
–
–
–
0
Species
FIBER PLANTS
cf. Linum sp.
USEFUL/MEDICINAL
WEEDS OF CEREALS
TABLE 14.4C (CONT.)
SUBPHASE
DEVELOPED PHASE 2
DEVELOPED PHASE 3
Burnt
Room
Burnt
Room
Burnt
Room
Floor 10
Burnt
Room
Floor 10
Burnt
Room
Floor 11
Fill 28
Fill 13
Fill 21
Fill 24
Part
SU 746
SU 748
SU 749*
SU 759
SU 753*
SU 758
SU 784
SU 777
SU 745
cf. Najus sp.
seed
–
–
5
–
–
–
–
–
Scirpus sp.
seed
–
–
1 [1]
–
–
–
–
–
Carex sp.
seed
–
–
4
–
–
–
–
cf. Carex sp.
seed
–
–
1 [2]
–
–
–
Polygonum sp.
seed
–
–
2
–
–
cf. Beta sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
cf. Spergula sp.
seed
–
–
–
Chenopodium sp.
seed
–
–
cf. Adonis sp.
seed
–
–
cf. Alchemilla sp.
seed
–
cf. Trifolium sp.
seed
Species
Pit 21
Sur 2
Fill 14
Total
SU 812
SU 750
SU 765
Total
–
5
–
–
–
0
–
1 [1]
–
–
–
0
–
–
4
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
1 [2]
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
1 [1]
–
1
–
–
–
–
2 [1]
–
–
–
0
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
0
–
15
–
1
–
–
–
–
16
–
–
–
0
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
0 [1]
–
–
–
0
WATER PLANTS
OTHER WILD PLANTS
cf. Trifolium/Astragalus
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
0
cf. Trigonella/Trifolium sp.
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
0
cf. Cucumis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
0
cf. Galium sp.
seed
–
–
5
–
–
–
–
–
–
5
–
–
–
0
cf. Echium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
Anchusa sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
cf. Myosotis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
cf. Galeopsis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
1
1
cf. Lamium sp.
seed
–
–
4
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
–
–
–
0
cf. Melissa sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
cf. Veronica sp.
seed
–
–
22
–
2
–
–
–
–
24
–
–
–
0
cf. Cirsium sp.
seed
–
–
[1]
–
1
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
–
–
–
0
cf. Ruppia sp.
seed
–
–
11
–
–
–
–
–
–
11
–
–
–
0
cf. Scorpiurus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
cf. Solanum sp.
seed
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
0
cf. Filago sp.
seed
–
–
11
–
–
–
–
–
–
11
–
–
–
0
cf. Arum sp.
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
0
TABLE 14.4C (CONT.)
SUBPHASE
DEVELOPED PHASE 2
DEVELOPED PHASE 3
Burnt
Room
Burnt
Room
Burnt
Room
Floor 10
Burnt
Room
Floor 10
Burnt
Room
Floor 11
Fill 28
Fill 13
Fill 21
Fill 24
Part
SU 746
SU 748
SU 749*
SU 759
SU 753*
SU 758
SU 784
SU 777
SU 745
Polygonaceae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Cruciferae
seed
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
Leguminosae
seed
–
–
3 [4]
–
3 [7]
–
Leguminosae small
seed
–
–
[3]
–
–
Boraginaceae
seed
–
–
4
–
[2]
Compositae
seed
–
–
–
–
Small Gramineae indet.
seed
–
–
[6]
Gramineae indet.
culm
–
–
Gramineae indet.
culm node
–
–
Gramineae indet.
aerial root
–
Species indet.
seed
Species indet. Type 2
Species indet. Type 3
Pit 21
Sur 2
Fill 14
Total
SU 812
SU 750
SU 765
Total
–
0
–
–
–
0
–
–
2
–
–
3
3
–
–
–
6 [11]
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
0 [3]
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
4 [2]
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
0 [6]
–
–
–
0
9
–
–
–
–
–
–
9
–
–
2
2
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
3
3
[2]
–
25 [9]
–
8 [28]
[4]
–
–
–
33 [43]
–
–
2 [1]
2 [1]
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
Species indet. Type 4
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
1
1
Species indet. Type 5
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
1
1
Species
INDETERMINATE
Monocotyledonae
seed
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
0
unknown
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
shell
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
7 [3]
0
433 [148]
0 [1]
357 [123]
0 [4]
0
0 [1]
2
279 [799]
0 [1]
3 [1]
57 [32]
60 [34]
Total items nonwood
10
0
581
[1]
480
4
0
[1]
2
1,078
94
Items per liter sieved
–
–
1.6
0.1
1.8
0.2
–
–
–
102
–
63
–
30
3
–
–
–
Quercus pubescens type
6
4
–
–
1
–
6
–
cf. Platanus sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Pyrus sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Olea europaea
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
131
–
274+
33
109
4
194
0
305
36
Carbon indet.
Nutshell
Total whole seeds
[1]
4
89
0.25
–
2.7
198
–
–
–
0
1
18
5
–
–
5
–
0
–
–
–
0
–
–
0
–
–
–
0
–
–
1
1
–
–
1
–
–
1
439+
–
–
–
0
6
0
2
655
6
0
0
6
WOOD
Pinus sp.
Indet.
Total wood fragments
838
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.4D. EARLY HELLADIC II DEVELOPED UNPHASED BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA
Context
Pit 3
Pit 33
Sur 1
Fill 7
Pit 1
Pit 1
Pit 1
Pit 49
Pit 49
SU
703
877
891
879
1930
1931
1932
2022
2023
Collection method
WS
WS
WS
T
WS
T/WS
WS
WS
WS
Vol. deposit (liters)
?
?
117
0
26
80
46
96
88
Vol. deposit sieved (liters)
?
?
27
0
8
16
12
24
22
% deposit sieved
?
?
23
–
31
20
26
25
25
Species
Total
Part
CEREALS
Triticum monococcum
seed
–
–
9 [2]
–
–
–
–
27 [6]
13 [7]
49 [15]
Triticum monococcum
spikelet fork
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
Triticum dicoccum
seed
–
–
1 [1]
–
–
–
–
6 [11]
6 [5]
13 [17]
Triticum dicoccum
spikelet fork
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Triticum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Triticum sp.
glume base
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Triticum sp.
rachis
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Hordeum sp.
seed
–
–
4 [2]
–
–
–
–
32 [25]
26 [21]
62 [48]
Hordeum sp.
rachis
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Cereal indet.
seed
–
–
1 [19]
–
[2]
[1]
1
7 [90]
[73]
9 [185]
Cereal indet.
awn
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
0 [1]
Cereal indet.
rachis
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Cicer arietinum
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Vicia ervilia
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
1 [2]
5
8 [2]
Vicia faba
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
6 [4]
4 [2]
10 [6]
Lens sp.
seed
[1]
–
5
–
–
–
–
4 [1]
2
11 [2]
Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [4]
–
1 [4]
cf. Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
Ficus carica
seed
1
–
3
–
4
–
9
63
15
96
Ficus carica
fruit
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[8]
–
[8]
Rubus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
3
Prunus dulcis
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Pyrus type
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Pyrus type
fruit
–
–
–
1?
–
–
–
–
–
1?
Vitis vinifera
seed
–
–
[1]
–
–
[3]
–
–
–
0 [4]
Vitis vinifera
pedicel
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Olea europaea
pit
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Fruit indet.
fruit
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
0 [1]
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
LEGUMES
FRUITS AND NUTS
FIBER PLANTS
cf. Linum sp.
Key: See Table 14.1
839
EH II PLANT REMAINS
TABLE 14.4D (CONT.)
Pit 3
Species
Part
Pit 33
Sur 1
Fill 7
Pit 1
Pit 1
Pit 1
Pit 49
Pit 49
SU 703 SU 877 SU 891 SU 879 SU 1930 SU 1931 SU 1932 SU 2022 SU 2023
Total
USEFUL/MEDICINAL
Vicia sp.
seed
–
–
6
–
[2]
–
1
8 [2]
3 [1]
18 [5]
cf. Lathyrus sp.
seed
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
1
–
–
1 [1]
cf. Lathyrus sativus
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
Medicago lupulina type
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Medicago hispida type
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Medicago cf. minima
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Medicago type 2
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
1
cf. Hypericum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
2
Malva sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Malva sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Lolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Bromus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Avena sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Phalaris sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
[1]
cf. Najus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Scirpus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Carex sp.
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
cf. Carex sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Polygonum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Beta sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Spergula sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
1
Chenopodium sp.
seed
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
cf. Adonis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Alchemilla sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Trifolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
1
cf. Trifolium/Astragalus
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
1
cf. Trigonella/Trifolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Cucumis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Galium sp.
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
cf. Echium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Anchusa sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
2
3
cf. Myosotis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
WEEDS OF CEREALS
WATER PLANTS
OTHER WILD PLANTS
840
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.4D (CONT.)
Pit 3
Pit 33
Sur 1
Fill 7
Pit 1
Pit 1
Pit 1
Pit 49
Pit 49
SU 703 SU 877 SU 891 SU 879 SU 1930 SU 1931 SU 1932 SU 2022 SU 2023
Total
Species
Part
cf. Galeopsis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Lamium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Melissa sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Veronica sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Cirsium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Ruppia sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
1
cf. Scorpiurus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
1
cf. Solanum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Filago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Arum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Polygonaceae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Cruciferae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
3
Leguminosae
seed
[2]
–
1 [5]
–
–
–
–
[42]
[30]
1 [79]
Leguminosae small
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Boraginaceae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Compositae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
0 [1]
Small Gramineae indet.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Gramineae indet.
culm
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Gramineae indet.
culm node
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Gramineae indet.
aerial root
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Species indet.
seed
1 [1]
–
1 [1]
–
[1]
–
–
–
1 [53]
3 [56]
Species indet. Type 2
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Species indet. Type 3
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Species indet. Type 4
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Species indet. Type 5
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Monocotyledonae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
unknown
–
–
[17]
–
[10]
–
[4]
[350]
[373]
[754]
shell
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
2 [4]
1
36 [49]
1
4 [15]
0 [5]
Total items nonwood
6
1
85
1
19
5
21
714
643
Items per liter sieved
?
?
3.15
–
2.4
0.3
1.75
29.75
29.2
Pinus sp.
–
–
–
–
–
10
–
–
–
10
Quercus pubescens type
–
–
–
–
–
4
–
–
–
4
cf. Platanus sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
cf. Pyrus sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0
Olea europaea
–
–
–
–
–
15
–
–
–
15
Indet.
2
–
286
–
56
26
–
–
–
370
2
0
286
0
56
55
0
0
0
399
INDETERMINATE
Carbon indet.
Nutshell
Total whole seeds
16 [5] 168 [546] 77 [566] 305 [1,190]
1,495
WOOD
Total wood fragments
EH II PLANT REMAINS
841
TABLE 14.4E. EARLY HELLADIC II PHASE UNKNOWN BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM
TSOUNGIZA AND TOTALS FOR ALL EARLY HELLADIC II
Context Above Cis 2
Fill 2
Fill 2
Floor 1
747
71 4
720
719
Collection method
T
WS
T
WS
Vol. deposit (liters)
–
?
–
1
3,865+
Vol. deposit sieved (liters)
0
?
0
1
1,041+
% deposit sieved
–
?
–
100
26
SU
Species
Totals for All EH II
Part
CEREALS
Triticum monococcum
seed
–
–
–
–
126 [48]
Triticum monococcum
spikelet fork
–
–
–
–
2
Triticum dicoccum
seed
–
–
–
1
23 [21]
Triticum dicoccum
spikelet fork
–
–
–
–
2
Triticum sp.
seed
–
–
–
1
2 [4]
Triticum sp.
glume base
–
–
–
–
2
Triticum sp.
rachis
–
–
–
–
1
Hordeum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
102 [151]
Hordeum sp.
rachis
–
–
–
–
1
Cereal indet.
seed
–
–
–
–
53 [439]
Cereal indet.
awn
–
–
–
–
[1]
Cereal indet.
rachis
–
–
–
–
1
Cicer arietinum
seed
–
–
–
–
[2]
Vicia ervilia
seed
–
–
–
–
14 [2]
Vicia faba
seed
1
–
–
–
12 [7]
Lens sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
63 [26]
Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
3 [6]
cf. Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1
Ficus carica
seed
–
–
–
–
672 [37]
Ficus carica
fruit
–
–
–
–
1 [22]
Rubus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
3
Prunus dulcis
seed
–
–
–
–
[1]
Pyrus type
seed
–
–
–
–
1
Pyrus type
fruit
–
–
–
–
4
Vitis vinifera
seed
–
–
–
–
23 [69]
Vitis vinifera
pedicel
–
–
–
–
5
Olea europaea
pit
–
–
–
–
1
fruit
–
–
–
–
6 [5]
seed
–
–
–
–
[1]
LEGUMES
FRUITS AND NUTS
Fruit indet.
FIBER PLANTS
cf. Linum sp.
Key: See Table 14.1
842
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.4E (CONT.)
Above Cis 2
Fill 2
Fill 2
Floor 1
Part
SU 747
SU 714
SU 720
SU 719
Vicia sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
51 [34]
cf. Lathyrus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
2 [5]
cf. Lathyrus sativus
seed
–
–
–
–
1
Medicago lupulina type
seed
–
–
–
–
15
Medicago hispida type
seed
–
–
–
–
12
Medicago cf. minima
seed
–
–
–
–
1
Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
21 [1]
Medicago type 2
seed
–
–
–
–
8
cf. Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
3 [2]
cf. Hypericum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
5 [1]
Malva sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
25
cf. Malva sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
Lolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
9 [18]
cf. Bromus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
4 [17]
Avena sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
2 [4]
Phalaris sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
17 [1]
cf. Najus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
5 [0]
Scirpus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
Carex sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
5
cf. Carex sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1 [2]
Polygonum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
2
cf. Beta sp.
seed
–
–
1
–
1
cf. Spergula sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1
Chenopodium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
3 [1]
cf. Adonis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1
cf. Alchemilla sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
16
cf. Trifolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
cf. Trifolium/Astragalus
seed
–
–
–
–
2
cf. Trigonella/Trifolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1
cf. Cucumis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1
cf. Galium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
6
cf. Echium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1
Anchusa sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
8
cf. Myosotis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
4
cf. Galeopsis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
2
Species
Totals for All EH II
USEFUL/MEDICINAL
WEEDS OF CEREALS
WATER PLANTS
OTHER WILD PLANTS
EH II PLANT REMAINS
843
TABLE 14.4E (CONT.)
Above Cis 2
Fill 2
Fill 2
Floor 1
Part
SU 747
SU 714
SU 720
SU 719
cf. Lamium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
4
cf. Melissa sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1
cf. Veronica sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
24
cf. Cirsium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
cf. Ruppia sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
12
cf. Scorpiurus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1
cf. Solanum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
2
cf. Filago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
11
cf. Arum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
1
Polygonaceae
seed
–
–
–
–
[1]
Cruciferae
seed
–
–
–
–
8
Leguminosae
seed
–
–
–
–
13 [125]
Leguminosae small
seed
–
–
–
–
[3]
Boraginaceae
seed
–
–
–
–
4 [2]
Compositae
seed
–
–
–
–
[1]
Small Gramineae indet.
seed
–
–
–
–
[6]
Gramineae indet.
culm
–
–
–
–
11
Gramineae indet.
culm node
–
–
–
–
1
Gramineae indet.
aerial root
–
–
–
–
3
Species indet.
seed
–
–
–
–
55 [111]
Species indet. Type 2
seed
–
–
–
–
1
Species indet. Type 3
seed
–
–
–
–
1
Species indet. Type 4
seed
–
–
–
–
1
Species indet. Type 5
seed
–
–
–
–
1
Monocotyledonae
seed
–
–
–
–
[1]
unknown
–
–
–
–
[802]
shell
–
–
–
–
[4]
Total whole seeds
1
0
1
2
1,519 [1,971]
Total items nonwood
1
0
1
2
3,490
Items per liter sieved
–
–
–
2
Pinus sp.
2
–
–
–
239
Quercus pubescens type
–
–
2
–
50
cf. Platanus sp.
–
–
–
–
1
cf. Pyrus sp.
–
–
–
–
2
Olea europaea
8
–
–
–
46
Indet.
–
+
–
8
2,113
10
+
2
8
2,451
Species
Totals for All EH II
INDETERMINATE
Carbon indet.
Nutshell
WOOD
Total wood fragments
844
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
Water-sieved Deposits
Figure 14.14. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH II Initial water-sieved deposits
Pit 35 was cut 0.90 m into bedrock (see Fig. 5.17), and contained a large deposit of pottery (388–398) dominated by tableware such as eating/drinking vessels and cooking ware
with many joins from the central 0.35 m of the pit’s depth (SUs 1913–1917). The botanical
remains from Pit 35 (Fig. 14.19) consisted of very few cereals and legumes and a predominance of fig seeds (n = 122, 77%), probably overrepresented due to factors already mentioned. The low density of plant remains and the low homogeneity of species in Pit 35 argue
against its use for storage. It is more likely that this pit was used for refuse or was dug during
construction of the significant EH II Developed Phase 2 architecture and filled in during
its use.
Pit 36 was a shallow depression that was in part combined with Pit 39 for water-sieve
sampling and contained a few fig seeds and a grape seed.
Pit 56 was clay-lined and cut to a depth of at least 1.51 m below bedrock. The lining suggests some type of storage facility, but the paucity of plant remains gives few clues as to what
EH II PLANT REMAINS
845
Water-sieved Deposits
Figure 14.15. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH II Developed Phase 1 water-sieved deposits
might have been stored here (Fig. 14.20). Material from Pit 56 consisted of a few cereals,
legume fragments, Boraginaceae, and Hypericum sp., an assemblage that could represent a
partially cleaned, stored crop, debris from crop cleaning, hearth sweepings, or a mixture
of remains from several different sources. In addition to the plant remains, SU 1948, from
within Pit 56, contained a set of domestic pottery (see Fig. 5.12, 381, 383–386) similar to
that from Pit 35, so the interpretation of the remains as cooking debris, or at least kitchen
debris, may be warranted.
Fill 10/1 was soil above Floor 6 that Harland left unexcavated (Fig. 14.15). It yielded a
mixture of cereals, lentils, and a few “weed” seeds (Fig. 14.21), along with a variety of wood
species. It is interesting that this deposit contained a sample of each type of wood identified
from Tsoungiza. Among these are a deciduous oak and pine that may have been used in
the superstructure of a building. The olive, plane, and pear wood could have been used for
furniture, structural elements such as windows or roofing, or fuel.
846
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
70
70
Percentage
Percent
Percentage
60
60
Percent of
Total Sediment
Water-sieved
(n = 354 L)
50
50
Watersieved
(n=1019L)
Percent of
Wood Items
Recoveredl (n=3274)
40
40
30
30
20
20
Percent of
Total Nonwood
Items Recovered
(n = 797)
Percent of
Sediment
Watersieved
(n=1019L)
Context
10
10
00
Pit 35
Pit 36
Pit 35
Pit 56
Pit 36
Pit 56
Surface 1
Surface 2
Fill 10/1
Surface 1 Surface 2 Fill 10/1
Context
Figure 14.16. EH II Developed Phase
1 comparison of percentage of sediment water-sieved and
percentage of items recovered, by context
12
10
10
ater-sieved
No. Items/L Water-sieved
12
8
8
6
6
4
4
2
2
0
0
Pit 35
Pit 36
Pit 56
Surface 1 Surface 2 Fill 10/1
Figure 14.17. EH II Developed Phase 1 density of nonwood items, by context
Floor 6 is not clearly associated with any structure, although it abuts a stone at the
base of Pit 26, just below Fill 10/1, that may be part of the southeast corner of House A
(Fig. 14.15, and pp. 261–262, above). Pullen suggests, however, that Floor 6 is later than
House A. Although none of the Floor 6 deposits were water-sieved, several pieces of charred
pine were collected in SU 848. As Fill 10/1 was above Floor 6, the wood remains may be part
of the same deposit of structural debris.
Surface 2 can be traced in the Central and Southeast Sectors (Fig. 14.15, and see
Chap. 5). One water-sieved sample yielded only a few seeds (barley, lentil, fig), and 10 fragments of carbon that may be parenchymetous tissue. In addition, fragments of pine, oak,
and olive wood were collected from several SUs by the excavators.
Summary of EH II Developed Phase 1
None of the plant assemblages from EH II Developed Phase 1 provides unequivocal evidence
for a specific usage of the context in which they were discovered. For Surface 1 and Fill
10/1, the possibility of there being mixed deposits from Harland’s earlier excavations is very
EH II PLANT REMAINS
Other Fruit/Nut
Other Ident.
0%
Seeds
1%
Grape
0%
Other Legumes
16%
847
Fig
0%
Einkorn
21%
Bitter Vetch
0%
Emmer
1%
Lentil
0%
Barley
18%
Cereals Indet.
43%
Figure 14.18. EH II Developed Phase 1 Surface 1, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 471)
Einkorn
Other Ident.
0%
Seeds
10%
Emmer
0%
Barley
4%
Cereals Indet.
0%
Lentil
2%
Bitter Vetch
1%
Other Fruit/Nut
1%
Grape
1%
Other Legumes
4%
0%
Fig
77%
Figure 14.19. EH II Developed Phase 1 Pit 35, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 155)
high. In the pits, the amount of material and the range of species is such that they cannot
be securely identified as storage contexts for plants and were probably, at some point, used
for refuse or were filled with debris over time after their initial use. The use of space can be
seen more clearly in the plant remains from EH II Developed Phase 2.
848
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
Einkorn
7%
Emmer
4%
Other Ident.
Seeds
35%
Barley
4%
Cereals Indet.
7%
Lentil
4%
Bitter Vetch
0%
Other Fruit/Nut
0%
Grape
0%
Other Legumes
32%
Fig
7%
Figure 14.20. EH II Developed Phase I Pit 56, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 28)
Other Ident.
Seeds
22%
Other Fruit/Nut
1%
Grape
1%
Einkorn
7%
Emmer
5%
Barley
16%
Fig
7%
Other Legumes
4%
Bitter Vetch
0%
Cereals Indet.
14%
Lentil
23%
Figure 14.21. EH II Developed Phase 1 Fill 10/1, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 74)
EH II Developed Phase 2
Burnt Room
The bulk of the plant remains from EH II deposits comes from a deposit that has been labeled Floor 10 (SU 749, Figs. 14.22, 14.23) and Floor 11 (SU 753, Fig. 14.26, below) of the
Burnt Room, although these are most likely part of the same deposition rather than two
superimposed floors (see pp. 315–316, above). This area was subdivided into 1.00 m2 units,
EH II PLANT REMAINS
849
Water-sieved Deposits
Figure 14.22. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH II Developed Phase 2 water-sieved deposits
each of which was excavated and water-sieved separately. We thus have a more detailed
breakdown of the contents of the floors and the distribution of material. Tables 14.5 and
14.6 provide the data for each SMU, and Figures 14.23 and 14.26 (see below) plot the density of seeds within the SMUs of each SU. We have labeled the SMUs to simplify the discussion.
SU 749 (Floor 10)
In total, 369 liters of sediment from 17 SMUs of Floor 10 were water-sieved (Fig. 14.23,
Table 14.5). An examination of the different species represented in SU 749 (Fig. 14.24)
shows that fig dominates, and barley and cereal fragments are fairly common. Also of interest is the large number of other plant remains that consist primarily of wild species
(Table 14.5), many of which could have been weeds in crops and suggest use of the room as
a food processing area.
850
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
512
catalogued objects
CM = concrete marker
Figure 14.23. EH II Developed Phase 2 Burnt Room SU 749 (Floor 10) SMUs
Although the quantity of plant remains from each SMU is small, it is possible to draw
some tentative conclusions about the material and potential use of the area. Figure 14.25
plots the density of remains in each SMU of SU 749 and shows that the greatest density of
plant remains was in SMU 10. In addition to some unidentified cereal grains, the sample
consists largely of the type of debris removed during fine sieving and final processing of
cereal crops before cooking, such as spikelet forks, glume bases, and rachis segments.11
These by-products may have been used as fodder, as is done in parts of Greece and Turkey
today,12 or may have been disposed of in a hearth or rubbish pit. No hearth or pit associated
with Floor 10 has been identified, although the burnt plant remains may originally have
been in a hearth. Alternatively, they may have been on the floor, where they would have
been charred when the structure burned. The large number of other wild plants, consisting
primarily of “weed” species, provides additional support for the interpretation of Floor 10
and its associated room as a food processing area. Species such as Medicago, Malva, Lolium,
Phalaris, and the many other wild plants represented here frequently occur as weeds among
cereal crops. Although few are identified to the species level, it is possible to state on the
basis of the size of the seeds that most could have been found in the fine sieve as by-products
of crop-processing activities.13 Artifactual evidence from Floor 10 provides no evidence that
this area was used for cooking, as some of the ceramics (511–528, 531) from the Burnt
Room appear to be a specialized assemblage of serving and drinking vessels rather than
those used for cooking (see Fig. 5.58).
11. Jones 1984.
12. Hillman 1984; Jones 1984.
13. Jones 1984, 1987.
EH II PLANT REMAINS
Emmer
<1%
Einkorn
<1%
Barley
4%
851
Cereals Indet.
9%
Lentil
1%
Bitter Vetch
0%
Other Ident.
Seeds
36%
Other Legumes
12%
Other Fruit/Nut
1%
Fig
29%
Grape
8%
Figure 14.24. EH II Developed Phase 2 Burnt Room SU 749 (Floor 10) percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 546)
4.5
4
Items per L
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
69
7
/4
6
69 1
7/
46
69 2
7/
46
69 3
7/
46
69 4
8/
46
69 1
8/
46
69 2
8/
46
69 3
8/
46
69 4
9/
46
69 1
9/
46
69 2
9/
46
69 3
9/
46
70 4
0/
46
70 1
0/
46
70 2
0/
46
70 3
0/
46
70 4
1/
46
70 1
1/
46
2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
SMU (E20/N6) Coordinates
Assigned Number
Figure 14.25. Density of nonwood items in SU 749 (Floor 10)
SU 753 (Floor 11)
Floor 11, the lower floor of the Burnt Room, provided a large quantity of plant remains
(Table 14.6, Fig. 14.26). Figure 14.27 plots the density of remains in each SMU and indicates
that the greatest density of material was in the eastern portion of the room (SMUs 13–15),
with only a slightly lower density in SMU 3, in the northwest corner. In each case, however, the
density of material is the result of large quantities of fig seeds, and the total number of seeds
(301) may represent only a single fig. Other remains include cereals (mostly unidentifiable
fragments), some lentils, and a few grape seeds (Fig. 14.28). Lentils are present in most
samples, but occur more commonly in the western part of the room.
852
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.5. EARLY HELLADIC II BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM BURNT ROOM SU 749 AT TSOUNGIZA
SU
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
697/461
697/462
697/463
697/464
698/461
698/462
698/463
698/464
Collection method
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
Vol. deposit (liters)
10
40
16
(Not
55
35
80
75
Vol. deposit sieved (liters)
2
14
4
Excav.)
10
6
24
27
% deposit sieved
20
35
25
18
17
30
36
SMU (E20/N6)
Species
Part
CEREALS
Triticum monococcum
seed
–
–
–
–
–
[2]
–
Triticum dicoccum
seed
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
Triticum dicoccum
spikelet fork
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Triticum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
[2]
–
Triticum sp.
glume base
–
–
–
–
1
–
6 [5]
Triticum sp.
rachis
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Hordeum sp.
seed
[2]
–
2 [7]
1 [1]
–
–
2
Cereal indet.
seed
–
2
[4]
[2]
[1]
–
[1]
Cereal indet.
rachis
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lens sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Ficus carica
seed
–
6
–
4
1
3 [4]
5
Ficus carica
fruit
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
Vitis vinifera
seed
–
–
–
–
–
1 [11]
1
Vitis vinifera
pedicel
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
Fruit indet.
fruit
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Vicia sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Medicago lupulina type
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Medicago hispida type
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Medicago cf. minima
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Medicago sp.
seed
–
1
–
–
–
–
1
Medicago sp. Type 2
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Malva sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Malva sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Linum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lolium sp.
seed
1
–
–
–
2
–
–
cf. Bromus sp.
seed
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
Avena sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
Phalaris sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
LEGUMES
FRUITS AND NUTS
USEFUL/MEDICINAL
WEEDS OF CEREALS
Key: See Table 14.1
EH II PLANT REMAINS
853
TABLE 14.5 (CONT.)
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
699/461
699/462
699/463
699/464
700/461
700/462
700/463
700/464
701/461
701/462
WS
WS
WS, T
WS, T
WS
WS
WS
WS, T
WS
WS
50
169
169
75
67
252
200
58
20
14
1,385
30
44
44
21
16
63
40
14
6
4
369
60
26
26
28
24
25
20
24
30
29
27
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[2]
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
13 [7]
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
15 [7]
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
1
–
–
–
1 [3]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
7 [5]
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
3
[1]
–
–
2
1
–
–
–
11 [11]
–
13 [9]
3
[2]
–
5
4 [2]
–
[1]
–
27 [22]
26 [21]
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
27 [21]
[73]
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
4 [73]
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
1
–
24
12
15
4
25
17 [18]
2
1 [7]
–
119 [29]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
5
1 [11]
3
2
–
5
2
–
–
–
20 [22]
4 [2]
–
1
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
7 [2]
2
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
8
[1]
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3 [1]
–
15
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
15
–
–
–
–
–
12
–
–
–
–
12
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
1
[1]
–
12
–
–
–
4
–
–
–
18 [1]
–
8
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
8
–
9
3
2
–
1
2
–
–
–
17
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
[14]
2 [1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5 [15]
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
–
–
[2]
–
–
1 [1]
–
–
–
–
2 [3]
–
12
–
–
1
3
–
–
–
–
16
Total
854
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.5 (CONT.)
SU 1
SU 2
SU 3
SU 4
SU 5
SU 6
SU 7
SU 8
Part
SMU
697/461
SMU
697/462
SMU
697/463
SMU
697/464
SMU
698/461
SMU
698/462
SMU
698/463
SMU
698/464
cf. Najus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Scirpus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Carex sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Carex sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Polygonum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
Chenopodium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Adonis sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Alchemilla sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
2
1
cf. Trifolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
cf. Trifolium/Astragalus
seed
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Trigonella/Trifolium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Galium sp.
seed
–
1
–
–
2
–
1
cf. Lamium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Veronica sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
cf. Cirsium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Ruppia sp.
seed
–
2
–
–
1
2
–
cf. Solanum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Filago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Arum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Cruciferae
seed
–
1
–
–
–
1
–
Leguminosae
seed
[1]
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
Leguminosae small
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Boraginaceae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Small Gramineae indet.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Gramineae indet.
culm
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
Gramineae indet.
culm node
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
seed
–
–
[1]
2
[2]
5
1
1 [3]
18
2 [12]
7 [4]
9 [3]
20 [21]
13 [1]
Total items nonwood
4
18
14
11
12
41
14
Items per liter sieved
2
1.3
3.5
1.1
2
1.7
0.5
Pinus sp.
–
–
–
–
–
31
–
Indet.
–
–
+
16
–
–
83
–
–
+
16
–
31
83
Species
WATER PLANTS
OTHER WILD PLANTS
INDETERMINATE
Species indet.
Total whole seeds
WOOD
Total wood fragments
EH II PLANT REMAINS
855
TABLE 14.5 (CONT.)
SU 9
SU 10
SU 11
SU 12
SU 13
SU 14
SU 15
SU 16
SU 17
SU 18
SMU
699/461
SMU
699/462
SMU
699/463
SMU
699/464
SMU
700/461
SMU
700/462
SMU
700/463
SMU
700/464
SMU
701/461
SMU
701/462
Total
–
1
3
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
5
–
–
–
1
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
–
–
4
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
–
[2]
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [2]
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
2
1
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
8
2
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
15
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5
–
4
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
–
18
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
22
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
3
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
11
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
11
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
11
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[2]
3 [4]
–
–
[3]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[3]
–
–
–
–
–
4
–
–
–
–
4
–
–
–
–
–
[6]
–
–
–
–
[6]
–
4
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
8
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
3 [3]
–
[2]
4
–
5
5
–
–
[1]
25 [9]
61 [114]
147 [38]
55 [11]
24 [2]
8
66 [9]
41 [20]
3
5 [8]
0 [3]
480 [249]
175
185
66
26
8
75
61
3
13
3
729
5.8
4
1.5
1.2
0.5
1.2
1.5
0.2
2.2
0.75
2.0
7
–
1
21
–
–
5
5
–
–
70
84
–
+
16
9
–
–
–
4
3
215
91
–
1+
37
9
–
5
5
4
3
285
856
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.6. EARLY HELLADIC II BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM BURNT ROOM SU 753 AT TSOUNGIZA
SU
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
697/461
697/462
697/463
697/464
698/461
698/462
698/463
698/464
Collection method
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS, T
WS
WS
Vol. deposit (liters
74
50
30
14
91
130
87
55
Vol. deposit sieved (liters)
14
10
7
3
20
30
20
16
% deposit sieved
19
20
23
21
22
23
23
29
SMU (E20/N6)
Species
Part
CEREALS
Triticum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Triticum sp.
glume base
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Hordeum sp.
seed
–
1
[3]
–
–
[1]
1
–
Cereal indet.
seed
–
[2]
[2]
–
[3]
[1]
[5]
–
Cereal indet.
spikelet fork
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
Vicia faba
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Vicia ervilia
seed
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
Lens sp.
seed
–
–
1 [1]
–
3 [1]
[1]
[2]
–
Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Ficus carica
seed
2
2
–
1
12
10
2
11
Pyrus type
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Vitis vinifera
seed
[7]
[1]
[3]
–
–
–
[4]
[3]
Vicia sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Lathyrus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[2]
Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
Malva sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
3
1
–
cf. Malva sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lolium sp.
seed
[1]
–
–
–
[2]
–
–
–
cf. Bromus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Chenopodium sp.
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Alchemilla sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Cucumis sp.
seed
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
cf. Veronica sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
cf. Cirsium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
Leguminosae
seed
–
–
1
–
[1]
1
–
[1]
Boraginaceae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
[2]
–
–
LEGUMES
FRUITS AND NUTS
USEFUL/MEDICINAL
WEEDS OF CEREALS
OTHER WILD PLANTS
INDETERMINATE
Key: See Table 14.1
EH II PLANT REMAINS
857
TABLE 14.6 (CONT.)
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
699/461
699/462
699/463
699/464
700/461
700/462
700/463
700/464
701/461
701/462
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
50
139
104
48
37
153
112
?
?
?
1,174+
10
32
28
16
9
29
28
?
?
?
272+
20
23
27
33
24
19
25
?
?
?
23
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
1 [1]
–
1
[2]
1
–
–
–
5 [7]
–
5
1
–
–
[10]
–
[1]
–
–
6 [24]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0 [1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
1
–
–
–
–
[1]
1
[1]
–
–
6 [7]
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
[1]
1
6
–
11
45
74
97
11
7
12
304
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
[18]
2
[4]
–
–
2 [40]
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
1
–
–
–
1 [1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[2]
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
1
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
8
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[3]
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
[1]
1 [1]
–
[3]
–
–
3 [7]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[2]
Total
858
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.6 (CONT.)
SU 1
SU 2
SU 3
SU 4
SU 5
SU 6
SU 7
SU 8
Part
SMU
697/461
SMU
697/462
SMU
697/463
SMU
697/464
SMU
698/461
SMU
698/462
SMU
698/463
SMU
698/464
Species indet.
seed
–
–
[17]
–
–
–
2
[6]
Monocotyledonae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
3 [8]
4 [3]
3 [26]
3
15 [7]
16 [5]
6 [11]
12 [13]
Total items nonwood
11
7
29
3
22
21
17
25
Items per liter sieved
0.8
0.7
4.1
1.0
1.1
0.7
0.85
1.6
Pinus sp.
–
–
–
–
–
2+
–
–
Quercus pubescens type
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Indet.
–
–
–
2
+
+
10
11
–
–
–
2
+
2+
10
11
Species
Total whole seeds
WOOD
Total wood fragments
512
catalogued objects
CM = concrete marker
Figure 14.26. EH II Developed Phase 2 Burnt Room SU 753 (Floor 11) SMUs
The other water-sieved sample that can be dated to EH II Developed Phase 2 is Fill 28, east
of the Burnt Room (Fig. 14.22). This produced seeds and chaff fragments of einkorn and
barley, lentils, and various wild species indicative of processing waste. As this material is fill, it
may not be directly associated with activities in the Burnt Room but rather an accumulation
of material from the surrounding area.
EH II PLANT REMAINS
859
TABLE 14.6 (CONT.)
SU 9
SU 10
SU 11
SU 12
SU 13
SU 14
SU 15
SU 16
SU 17
SU 18
SMU
699/461
SMU
699/462
SMU
699/463
SMU
699/464
SMU
700/461
SMU
700/462
SMU
700/463
SMU
700/464
SMU
701/461
SMU
701/462
Total
1
4
–
[5]
–
–
–
1
–
–
8 [28]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0 [1]
4
23
4 [2]
11 [5]
46 [2]
76 [34]
103 [1]
13 [9]
7
12
361 [125]
4
23
6
16
48
110
104
22
7
12
486
0.4
0.7
0.2
1
5.3
3.8
3.7
?
?
?
1.8
–
–
1
–
–
–
25
1
–
1
30
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
1
–
–
–
5
10
+
200
+
–
38
276+
–
–
1
5
10
+
225
2+
–
39
305+
6
Items per L
5
4
3
2
1
69
7/
46
69 1
7/
46
69 2
7/
46
69 3
7/
46
69 4
8/
46
69 1
8/
46
69 2
8/
46
69 3
8/
46
69 4
9/
46
69 1
9/
46
69 2
9/
46
69 3
9/
46
70 4
0/
46
70 1
0/
46
70 2
0/
46
3
0
11
22 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 89 910 101111 1212 13
13 14
14 15
15
Figure 14.27. Density of nonwood items in SU 753 (Floor 11)
Other Excavation Units
Deposits from other parts of the site also produced plant remains dated to EH II (Table 14.4).
Most of the material comes from EU 7 SU 1275. This has been interpreted as a primary
deposit contemporary with the Burnt Room (EH II Developed Phase 2; see pp. 335–336,
above). The presence of cooking ware and baking pans among the ceramics suggests a domestic deposit. Among the plant remains, grape predominates. The assemblage of plants
could be from refuse from a hearth or floor, but the absence of any architectural features
associated with the deposit precludes a definitive interpretation.
860
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
Other Ident.
Seeds
12%
Einkorn
0%
Emmer
0% Barley
2%
Cereals Indet.
6%
Lentil
3%
Bitter Vetch
<1%
Other Fruit/Nut
1%
Other Legumes
4%
Grape
9%
Fig
62%
Figure 14.28. EH II Developed Phase 2 Burnt Room SU 753 (Floor 11), percentages of identifiable seeds
(n = 487)
Summary of EH II Developed Phase 2
There are no significant changes from EH II Developed Phase 1 to EH II Developed Phase 2.
A ubiquity analysis of the cultivated species, expressed as the percentage occurrence within
the total number of samples, found in Floors 10 and 11 (Fig. 14.29) shows that fig again
predominates, with barley (Hordeum sp.) and lentils (Lens sp.) present in many samples.
Emmer (Tritium dicoccum) and einkorn (Tritium monococcum) were present only in SUs 7 and
11 of Floor 10. As will be seen below, barley is generally more common in all EH phases of
occupation at Tsoungiza.
Percent Occurrence in SMUs
100
90
80
70
753
60
50
749
40
30
20
10
0
Triticum
monococcum
Triticum
dicoccum
Hordeum sp.
Lens sp.
Ficus carica
Figure 14.29. Comparative ubiquity of cultivated species in SU 749 and SU 753
EH II Developed Phase 3
Only two EH II Developed Phase 3 samples from EU 5, totaling 37 liters, were water-sieved.
Remains from Pit 21, a small, conical, pebble-lined pit near Wall 21 of House B (Figs. 14.30,
EH II PLANT REMAINS
861
Water-sieved Deposits
Figure 14.30. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH II Developed Phase 3 water-sieved deposits
Fig. 5.63) consist of a single fragment of a pea that provides no indication of the use of
this unusual feature. From Fill 14, north and east of the Burnt Room, 82 seeds and seed
fragments were recovered (Figs. 14.30, 14.31). Among these, lentil was predominant while
other legumes, cereals, and fig were also well represented. Many of the other plants could be
weeds in cereal or legume crops. Crop processing refuse may be indicated here in the form
of spikelet, rachis, and culm fragments, as well as aerial roots of a cereal.
Harland’s Finds in House B
Harland also recovered carbonized plant remains during his excavations in 1926 and 1927.
Some of these were found in the museum at Corinth and were analyzed at Boston University.
In House B, now dated to EH II Developed Phase 3, a large quantity (ca. 700) of charred
acorns were found in and around a small broken pithos or storage jar adjacent to the hearth
in the north room (see Fig. 5.61). Harland noted that “what had caused the overturning of
862
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
Einkorn
2%
Other Fruit/Nut
0%
Other Ident.
Seeds
18%
Emmer
2%
Barley
4%
Cereals Indet.
9%
Grape
1%
Fig
15%
Other Legumes
4%
Bitter Vetch
0%
Lentil
45%
Figure 14.31. EH II Developed Phase 3 Fill 14, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 37)
the jar and the spilling of the bean-like halves of acorns onto the hearth, it would be idle
to speculate.”14 Perhaps, but it seems likely that the structure, or at least this room, burned,
causing the charring of the acorns. The storage vessel could have fallen from a shelf or been
broken when a shelf or beam from the room fell on it. Other acorns were found in the south
room near the northwest corner.
The acorns are large (100 samples averaged 0.0207 x 0.0082 m) and may be from either
the valonia oak (Quercus macrolepis) or the holm oak (Quercus ilex), neither of which grows
in the area today. Valonia oaks are deciduous or semideciduous and have large acorns. As
noted above, all of the identified oak charcoal from the site is of the deciduous type.
Peas from several deposits are also mentioned in Harland’s notes, but most of these
remains have been lost over the years. One and a half peas were recovered from the acorn
deposit in the north room, and 25 barley grains were found mixed with the large acorn
deposit. Harland reported finding five pithoi in the north room, in addition to a hydria, a
sauceboat, and a firedog stand. Clearly this was a food storage and preparation area. The
barley and acorns may have been mixed after deposition or during excavation, as it seems
unlikely that they would have been stored together in the same jar.
Other EH II Deposits
EH II Developed (Unphased)
Eight additional samples from EU 5 have yielded plant remains of EH II date (Tables 14.4d, e),
but the chronological subphase of their associated contexts cannot be determined (Fig.
14.32). Surface 1 SU 891 produced einkorn, barley, and lentils with a few other legumes and
“weed” seeds. Pit 1 (Fig. 14.33) yielded a few fragments of cereals, legumes, fig, and grape,
as well as fragments of pine, oak, and olive wood.
Among the most productive contexts in EH II is Pit 49 (Fig. 14.34), which produced
relatively large quantities of cereals and legumes. Hundreds of fragments of carbon that
14. Harland MS, p. 63.
EH II PLANT REMAINS
863
Water-sieved Deposits
Figure 14.32. Plan of Tsoungiza showing EU 5 EH II Developed unphased water-sieved deposits
may be parenchymatous tissue were also retrieved. There were very few other seed remains
that might indicate that this was a storage pit or refuse deposit from kitchen waste.
Summary of EH II
Figure 14.35 illustrates the percentage of cultivated species represented in EH II samples
from EU 5. As in EH I, fig makes up a substantial proportion of the remains. Einkorn and
barley predominate among the cereals. The paucity of emmer as compared with the other
two cereals raises the question of whether emmer was a common crop at Tsoungiza or was
grown as part of a maslin with einkorn, barley, or both. Unfortunately, with so little material
overall, it is not possible to answer this question.
A similar relationship among the plants can be seen in a plot of the ubiquity of these
species (Fig. 14.36). Fig is present in a greater percentage of samples than any other plant.
864
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
Other Ident.
Seeds
14%
Einkorn
0%
Emmer
0%
Barley
0%
Cereals Indet.
14%
Lentil
0%
Other Fruit/Nut
0%
Bitter Vetch
7%
Grape
11%
Other Legumes
7%
Fig
47%
Figure 14.33. EH II Developed unphased Pit 1, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 28)
Other Fruit/Nut
0%
Other Ident.
Seeds
10%
Einkorn
9%
Emmer
5%
Grape
0%
Fig
13%
Barley
17%
Other Legumes
15%
Bitter Vetch
3%
Lentil
1%
Cereals Indet.
27%
Figure 14.34. EH II Developed Pit 49, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 613)
Barley and lentil are nearly twice as ubiquitous in the EU 5 contexts as emmer, einkorn,
and vetch, which occur in only about 10% of the samples. The data indicate that barley and
lentils were the most common plant remains found on the site in EH II, and suggest that
they were the principal crops grown at Tsoungiza during this period.
The bulk of the EH II botanical material comes from surface deposits, primarily Surface
1, where a concentration of einkorn wheat was found. Floors 10 and 11 and the fills and pits
EH II PLANT REMAINS
Einkorn
5%
865
Emmer
1%
Barley
7%
Cereals Indet.
14%
Other Remains
41%
Lentils
3%
Bitter Vetch
0%
Other Legumes
9%
Other Fruit/Nut
0%
Fig
20%
Figure 14.35. EH II species represented as percentages of total nonwood items (n = 3,490)
Percent Occurrence in Total
Number of Samples
60
50
40
30
20
10
e
liv
O
pe
G
ra
Fi
g
a
Pe
il
nt
Le
Fa
v
a
Be
a
n
ch
y
rV
et
rle
tte
Ba
Bi
Em
m
er
Ei
nk
or
n
0
Figure 14.36. Ubiquity of selected species in EH II (n = 91)
contained relatively little plant material, with the exception of Pit 49 (Fig. 14.37). We have
been able to show (Fig. 14.38) that the remains are unevenly distributed across the Burnt
Room, with cereals and legumes dominating the western portion and fig seeds predominant
in the eastern section of the room. It would also appear that the assemblage of plant remains
on these floors represent fine sieving or other crop processing waste, and we suggest that the
room was used for food preparation.
The plant remains from EH II indicate that there was no change from earlier periods in
the type of crop grown. Figure 14.39 plots the percentage of the total number of seeds per
phase for the main categories of plant remains from EH I and EH II. Einkorn, emmer, barley, lentils, and bitter vetch are all present in these deposits in relatively small percentages.
Again, fig predominates, though reduced in EH II. Grape is also more common in EH II
than in EH I, where the nine seeds constitute less than 1% of the plant remains. It is not possible to compare the ubiquity of species for the two periods, as there are so few (four) EH I
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
No. Items/L
866
8
6
4
2
0
Pits
Floors
Fills
Surface
Figure 14.37. EH II density of nonwood items, by context
100
Percent of Total Seeds in SMU
90
80
Einkorn
Einkorn
70
Emmer
Emmer
60
Barley
Barley
50
Lentil
Lentil
40
Fig
Fig
30
20
Other
Other
10
69
7/
4
69 61
7/
4
69 62
7/
4
69 63
7/
4
69 64
8/
4
69 61
8/
4
69 62
8/
4
69 63
8/
4
69 64
9/
4
69 61
9/
4
69 62
9/
4
69 63
9/
4
70 64
0/
4
70 61
0/
4
70 62
0/
4
70 63
0/
4
70 64
1/
4
70 61
1/
46
2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
SU 749 SMUs
Percent
SMU
PercentofofTotal
TotalSeeds
Seedsper
in SMU
100
90
80
WWheat
he
at
Ba
atBarley
rle
y
yLeLentil
lnti
Fi
l Fig
g
OtOther
he
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1
10
2
2
2
2
2
01
10
11
11
11
11
11
15
15
15
15
15
18
18
18
18
18
69
7/
4
69 61
7/
4
69 62
7/
4
69 63
7/
4
69 64
8/
4
69 61
8/
4
69 62
8/
4
69 63
8/
4
69 64
9/
4
69 61
9/
4
69 62
9/
4
69 63
9/
4
70 64
0/
4
70 61
0/
4
70 62
0/
4
70 63
0/
4
70 64
1/
4
70 61
1/
46
2
1
1
1
10
1
2
3
10
10
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
SU 753 SMUs
Figure 14.38. Comparison of distribution of seed density in SU 749 (Floor 10) and SU 753 (Floor 11)
contexts. Differences in the types of contexts represented by EH I and EH II plant remains
also present problems for assessing temporal trends, so that it is possible only to compare pit
deposits between EH I and II.
EH II PLANT REMAINS
867
60
Percentage
50
EH I
EH I
40
30
20
EH II
EH II
10
0
E
er
n
or
k
in
m
Em
y
il
nt
le
r
Ba
Le
ch
et
rV
tte
Bi
g
Fi
pe
ra
G
er
th
O
Number of Seeds per 10 L of Water-sieved Sediment
Figure 14.39. Comparison of percentages of selected species in EH I and EH II
30
30
25
25
Einkorn
Einkorn
20
20
Emmer
Emmer
Barley
Barley
15
15
10
10
1
10
2
15
11
18
OtLentil
he
Bitter Vetch
Bitter
Vetch
Lentil
Fig
55
00
Pit 17
Pit 55
Pit 48
EH I Pits
Pit 35
Pit 36
Pit 56
Pit 1
Pit 49
EH II Pits
Figure 14.40. Density of species in EH I and EH II pits
Figure 14.40 illustrates the density of remains of the most common plants in EH I and
EH II pits. EH I pits 17 and 48 are dominated by cereals and legumes while Pit 55 has primarily fig seeds. In the EH II pits, there are fewer remains overall. Fig dominates in Pits 35,
36, and 1, while Pit 49 contains cereals and legumes.
Comparative Material
There is very little comparative material for the EH II botanical remains from Tsoungiza
(Table 14.7), which therefore contribute significantly to filling a gap in our understanding
of EH II subsistence. At Lerna, Hopf identified primarily legumes such as lentils, fava beans,
and peas from the Lerna III deposits.15 Very few grains of cereals were found, though emmer,
einkorn, and barley were present. Notable at Lerna is the presence of a single grain of naked
barley (Hordeum vulgare var. nudum), not identified at Tsoungiza. In addition, flax (Linum
sp.) was recovered from Lerna III deposits. No flax was recovered from Tsoungiza deposits,
15. Hopf 1961.
n=2
n = 33
Skoteini
Plateia
Magoula
Zarkou
Tsani
Synoro
Sesklo
Myrtos
n=4
Phaistos
n=3
Debla
Kastanas
Tiryns,
EH III
n=1
Argissa
n=3
Tiryns,
EH II
n = 12
Lerna
IV–V
n = 16
Pefkakia
n=5
Lerna
IV
Species
Lerna
III
Site
Lerna
II–III
TABLE 14.7. EARLY HELLADIC COMPARATIVE BOTANICAL MATERIAL FROM GREECE
n=4
CEREALS
Triticum monococcum
–
12
–
–
–
–
77
50
100
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
Triticum dicoccum
–
12
–
33
1*
–
76
100
100
+
–
–
+
–
–
50
+
Triticum aestivum/durum
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Tiriticum sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
–
–
–
–
–
Hordeum vulgare
20
6
25
–
–
–
91
100
100
+
+
+
–
–
+
50
+
Hordeum vulgare var.
nudum
40
–
8
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lens
20
19
–
–
+
–
54
33
100
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Vicia ervilia
–
19
–
–
+
+
70
–
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
25
–
Vicia faba
80
37
33
–
+
–
15
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
Pisum
20
37
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
Lathyrus cicera
–
12
8
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lathyrus sativus
–
–
–
–
–
–
12
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
Lathyrus sp.
20
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Vicia sp.
–
6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Cicer arietinum
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
Linum
–
12
–
–
–
–
42
–
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Camelina sativa
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Papaver
–
–
–
–
+
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Ficus
40
31
–
–
+
+
45
100
100
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Vitis
–
–
33
33
+
+
42
–
50
–
–
+
–
+
–
–
–
MILLETS
Panicum miliaceum
LEGUMES
OIL AND FIBER PLANTS
FRUIT AND NUTS
Key: See Table 14.1
n = number of samples studied, otherwise only presence (+) or absence (–) of material is indicated
*spikelet fork
Lerna
II–III
Lerna
III
Lerna
IV
Lerna
IV–V
Tiryns,
EH II
Tiryns,
EH III
Kastanas
Pefkakia
Argissa
Debla
Phaistos
Myrtos
Sesklo
Synoro
Tsani
Plateia
Magoula
Zarkou
Skoteini
TABLE 14.7 (CONT.)
Quercus
–
–
8
33
–
–
51
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Arbutus
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Olea
–
–
–
–
+
–
–
–
–
–
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
Prunus
–
6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Pyrus
–
–
–
–
–
–
6
–
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Cornus mas
–
–
–
–
–
–
6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Sambucus ebulus
–
–
–
–
–
–
12
–
75
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Rubus fruticosis s.l.
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Medicago
–
–
–
–
+
–
6
–
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Malva sp.
–
–
–
–
–
+
–
–
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lithospermum officinale
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Hyoscymus sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lolium temulentum
–
–
–
–
+
–
57
–
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Galium spurium &
similar
–
–
–
–
–
–
27
–
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lithospermum arvense
–
–
–
–
–
+
9
33
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Polygonum convolvulus
–
–
–
–
–
–
27
–
50
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Rumex acetosella
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
50
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Adonis sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Scleranthus sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Verbascum sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Bromus
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Avena
–
–
–
–
+
–
6
–
75
+
–
–
–
–
–
25
–
Plantago lanceolata
–
–
–
–
–
–
9
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
Fumaria sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Site
Species
USEFUL/MEDICINAL
WEEDS OF CEREALS
Lerna
II–III
Lerna
III
Lerna
IV
Lerna
IV–V
Tiryns,
EH II
Tiryns,
EH III
Kastanas
Pefkakia
Argissa
Debla
Phaistos
Myrtos
Sesklo
Synoro
Tsani
Plateia
Magoula
Zarkou
Skoteini
TABLE 14.7 (CONT.)
Portulaca oleracea
–
–
–
–
–
–
6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Setaria viridis & similar
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Cynodon dactylon
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Weeds of Flax
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lolium remotum
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Onopordon
–
–
8
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Physalis
–
–
–
–
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Chenopodiaceae
–
–
–
–
–
–
57
–
50
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Polygonaceae
–
–
–
–
–
–
33
–
75
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Cyperaceae
–
–
–
–
–
–
30
33
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Plantaginaceae
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
33
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Gramineae
–
–
–
–
–
–
30
33
75
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
Fabaceae, Trifolium type
–
–
–
–
–
–
21
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Fabaceae, Vicia type
–
–
–
–
–
–
9
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Compositae
–
–
–
–
+
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Cruciferae
–
–
–
–
–
–
6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Caryophyllaceae
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
50
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Euphorbiaceae
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Scrophulariaceae
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
33
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Site
Species
WEEDS OF LEGUMES
WATER PLANTS
Alisma plantago-aquatica
OTHER PLANTS
UNIDENTIFABLE
EH III PLANT REMAINS
871
although it could have been grown successfully in the region. It would have been harvested
prior to seed set if it had been used for textile production, so its archaeological absence may
not mean that it was absent at Tsoungiza (see Chap. 8 for textile production).
EH III PLANT REMAINS
Very little plant material was recovered from the excavations of Early Helladic III deposits in
EU 5 (Fig. 14.41, Table 14.8). While nine deposits were water-sieved, the sediment volumes
were recorded for only two and it is not, therefore, possible to examine the difference in
density among the various contexts. Identified plant remains include those cereals and
legumes already seen in EH II samples. In terms of absolute numbers, Pit 24 and Fill 23
produced more remains of seeds than did the other deposits from EH III. Barley is the
predominant cereal in these deposits as well as the others, and lentils are common in several
samples. Few other species are well represented.
Water-sieved Deposits
Figure 14.41. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH III NVAP water-sieved deposits
TABLE 14.8. EARLY HELLADIC III BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA
Pit 11
Surface
2?
Pit 24
Pit 30
Pit 44
Pit 44,
pot
Fill 23
Fill 23
Fill 23
Fill 23
(Burnt)
SU
707
726
806
813
1956
1956
712
730
802
819
Collection method
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
WS
Vol. deposit (liters)
?
?
?
28
?
?
?
1
?
?
Context
Vol. deposit sieved (liters)
% deposit sieved
Species
EU 2
EU 10
EU 7
EU 6
361
Pit 1
Sondage
912
T
WS
WS
WS
29+
–
253
18
40
EU 5
Total
HOQ*
?
?
?
28
?
?
?
1
?
?
29+
0
69
18
10
50
?
?
100
?
?
?
100
?
?
?
–
27
100
25
Part
CEREALS
Triticum monococcum
seed
–
1
[1]
–
2 [1]
–
–
–
1
2
6 [2]
–
–
–
–
–
Triticum dicoccum
seed
–
1
9 [5]
–
–
–
–
–
4
5 [1]
19 [6]
–
–
11
–
[3]
Triticum durum/aestivum
seed
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
Triticum sp.
seed
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
Hordeum vulgare
seed
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
49
50
–
–
–
–
–
Hordeum sp.
seed
–
1 [1]
69 [126]
[2]
1 [1]
1 [2]
–
–
5 [4]
[74]
77 [210]
34 [7]
–
5 [1]
1
3
Hordeum sp.
rachis
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
Cereal indet.
seed
[4]
[8]
[132]
[3]
[27]
–
–
–
[5]
6 [102]
6 [281]
[15]
–
[34]
–
[6]
Vicia ervilia
seed
–
–
1
–
1
–
–
–
–
1
3
1
–
–
–
2
Vicia faba
seed
–
–
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
3
1
–
–
–
–
Lens sp.
seed
–
1 [1]
6
3 [3]
–
–
–
–
123 [62]
–
–
5 [2]
[1]
11 [2]
Pisum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[4]
–
–
Ficus carica
seed
–
–
23
–
3
–
–
–
2
6
34
–
–
4
1
2
Pyrus type
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
–
LEGUMES
101 [37] 12 [21]
FRUITS AND NUTS
Pyrus type
fruit
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
Vitis vinifera
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
1
–
–
1
3
–
–
3
–
–
Quercus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [137]**
–
–
–
–
cf. Quercus
shell
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
Fruit indet.
fruit
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
Olea sp.
seed
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
[1]
seed
–
–
3 [1]
[1]
–
1
–
–
2
–
6 [2]
–
–
1
–
–
USEFUL/MEDICINAL
Vicia sp.
cf. Lathyrus sativus
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
Medicago sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
TABLE 14.8 (CONT.)
Surface
2?
Pit 24
Pit 30
Fill 23
Fill 23
(Burnt)
SU 707 SU 726
SU 806
SU 813 SU 1956 SU 1956 SU 712 SU 730 SU 802
SU 819
Pit 11
Species
Part
Pit 44
Pit 44,
pot
Fill 23
Fill 23
EU 5
Total
HOQ*
EU 2
EU 10
SU 361
Pit 1
EU 7
EU 6
Sondage SU 912
WEEDS OF CEREALS
Lolium sp.
seed
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 [1]
3 [1]
–
–
–
–
–
Avena sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
2
–
–
2
–
–
Phalaris sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
Bromus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2 [1]
–
–
Hordeum cf. murinum
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
[1]
–
–
2
–
–
cf. Beta sp.
seed
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
OTHER WILD PLANTS
cf. Alchemilla sp.
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
Galium sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
2
3
–
–
1
–
–
cf. Veronica sp.
seed
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
Malva
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
Cruciferae
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
–
–
Leguminosae
seed
[1]
–
7
–
–
–
–
–
–
[5]
7 [6]
1
–
–
–
[2]
Boraginaceae
seed
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
Small Gramineae indet.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
Species indet.
seed
[2]
–
[2]
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
[4]
2
–
30
–
–
Species indet.
fruit
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
–
[4]
–
–
–
–
–
[4]
–
–
–
–
–
INDETERMINATE
Carbon indet.
3 [9]
7 [33]
2 [2]
1
0
0
74 [43]
2 [1]
18 [14]
Total items nonwood
12
16
397
12
40
4
1
0
164
293
939
201
0
117
3
32
Items per liter sieved
?
?
?
4.3
?
?
?
0
?
?
–
–
0
1.7
0.2
3.2
Total whole seeds
4 [8]
5 [11] 129 [268]
118 [46] 87 [206] 356 [583] 42 [159]
WOOD
Pinus sp.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
–
–
Quercus pubescens type
–
4
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
5
–
–
–
–
–
Olea europaea
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
–
–
+
63
–
–
–
–
Indet.
58
10
112
32
39
–
–
–
+
–
251
–
–
+
–
–
58
14
112
33
39
0
0
+
+
0
256+
64
1
–
–
–
Total wood fragments
Key: See Table 14.1
*House of the Querns/House E
**Area P, Area P level III, and Areas P and R
874
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
At the eastern edge of EU 5, Pit 11 was partially uncovered. This clay-lined pit was 0.50 m
deep and had a very low density of plant remains. Identifiable species include barley and
olive, while seeds of cf. Veronica, cf. Beta, Boraginaceae, Crucifereae, and cereals were also
recovered. Pit 11 is unlikely to have been a storage feature, at least in its final use, on the
basis of the paucity of remains coupled with the high diversity of species. It does, however,
indicate that the use of barley and olive continued in EH III.
In the central part of EU 5, Fill 23 was ashy, burnt soil west of the House of the Querns. It
yielded an assemblage of remains (Fig. 14.42) similar to that of Pit 24 and may represent a
rubbish dump for hearth cleanings. Pit 30 was cut into Fill 23 and lined with a thick layer of
white clay. This pit yielded only a few cereals, lentils, and fig seeds.
Grape
Other Fruit/Nut
Other Ident. Seeds
0.2%
0.2%
1%
Fig
Einkorn
2%
Other Legumes
1%
Emmer
2%
2%
Bitter Vetch
0.2%
Barley
28%
Lentil
39%
Cereals Indet.
25%
Figure 14.42. EH III Fill 23, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 445)
Pit 24 is in the northern part of EU 5 and may correspond to a feature originally identified
by Harland as a hearth. This pit was clay-lined and contained burnt debris and pottery. Barley
and unidentified cereal fragments dominate the plant assemblage but a few legumes and
fig seeds were also recovered (Fig. 14.43). This pattern, similar to that of the mixed deposits
seen in earlier pits, makes it difficult to identify the function of the pit from these remains.
The clay lining and the predominance of cereals here, however, may indicate original use as
a crop storage facility and subsequent use as a refuse dump.
Pit 44 yielded substantially fewer botanical remains than did the other EH III contexts
(Fig. 14.44), although here also, cereals predominate. Most are unidentifiable cereal
fragments, but barley and einkorn were also identified. Bitter vetch, other legumes, and
fig make up the rest of the remains. This pit was recognized as a difference in soil within
a fill deposit (SU 1952; see p. 464, above) and may have been a place where Harland had
excavated lower than usual in this area. The lack of a clear architectural context and the
paucity of plant remains preclude any decisive interpretation of this deposit.
Harland Material from House E/House of the Querns
The plant remains recovered by the NVAP excavations indicate that the same assemblage of
cereals and legumes were grown in EH III as in earlier periods, and that fig was exploited
EH III PLANT REMAINS
Other
Legumes
4%
Grape
0.2%
Other Fruit/Nut
0%
875
Other Ident.
Seeds
2%
Fig
6%
Bitter Vetch
0.2%
Einkorn
0.2%
Emmer
4%
Lentil
2%
Cereals Indet.
34%
Barley
48%
Figure 14.43. EH III Pit 24, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 394)
Grape
0%
Other Legumes
3%
Other Fruit/Nut
0%
Fig
8%
Bitter Vetch
3%
Lentil
0%
Other Ident. Seeds
0%
Einkorn
7%
Emmer
0%
Barley
12%
Cereals Indet.
67%
Figure 14.44. EH III Pit 44, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 40)
during all EH periods. Harland’s excavations in 1926–1927 provide additional plant remains
in the form of acorns.
In House E/House of the Querns (Figs. 14.45, 6.10), Harland reports finding acorns in
Pithoi 4 and 5, as well as on the floor between the pithoi. In addition, peas and other seeds
(unidentified at the time of excavation and now lost) were reported from this structure. The
number of storage vessels and grinding tools suggests that the House of the Querns was used
for food storage and processing and, clearly, acorns were among those foods.
A few acorns were present in the EH III (Lerna IV) levels at Lerna, but Kroll does not
report any from Tiryns.16 At Tsoungiza, the association of acorns with storage vessels and
16. Lerna: Hopf 1961, 1962; Tiryns: Kroll 1982.
876
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
Figure 14.45. EH II Developed Phase 3 and EH III contexts with acorns found by Harland
grinding stones indicates that they were collected for human consumption and may have
been an important component of the diet. They would have provided substantial vegetable
fat and protein, but may have required some processing to remove the bitter tannins prior
to being eaten. This is often accomplished through soaking or leaching of the whole or
crushed nut. Some species of oak, however, produce sweet acorns that can be eaten without
any processing. The species represented at Tsoungiza has not been securely identified, as
noted above, but both valonia oak and holm oak acorns have been considered by some as
“sweet” and not needing processing to make them palatable. Mason provides an overview
of the use of acorns in ancient times.17 Holm oak (Quercus ilex) can be both bitter and sweet.
Quercus macrolepis, valonia oak, acorns are also mentioned in texts and are said to be either
17. Mason 1992; 1995, p. 19.
AGRICULTURE AND SUBSISTENCE AT EH TSOUNGIZA
877
bitter or sweet (Theopr. Hist. pl. 3.8.2, 3). Theophrastus also notes that the people of Mount
Ida rank the acorns of valonia as the sweetest, gall oak (Quercus infectoria) second, scrub oak
(Quercus languinosa) third, sea-bark oak (Quercus pseudo-robur) fourth, and Turkey oak (Quercus
cerris) last (Hist. pl. 3.8.2). The Macedonians are said to distinguish four kinds of acorn, the
sweetest being true oak (Quercus robur), scrub oak being bitter, valonia oak as round with no
reference to sweetness, and Turkey oak as being poor (Theophr. Hist. pl. 3.8.7).
The acorns found in the House of the Querns were associated with large storage jars and
numerous grinding stones, suggesting that they were probably at least ground or broken up
prior to cooking or consumption. There is no clear evidence, however, for or against their
also having been soaked or leached.
Summary of EH III
The EH III plant remains are similar to those of EH I and EH II. Barley and lentils are
the predominant crops, and acorns also continue to be exploited. The paucity of EH III
botanical remains in any one context, with the exception of the House of the Querns,
precludes a definitive interpretation of the pits as storage facilities, despite the fact that
some of them are lined with clay.
MIXED DEPOSITS
Table 14.9 provides the lists of botanical remains from deposits of mixed date from EU 6
and EU 7. The species represented are similar to those of the dated samples, but there is
little point in further analysis of the samples without being able to assign them to a specific
period or phase. The following discussion is based on the analysis of the dated samples only.
AGRICULTURE AND SUBSISTENCE AT EH TSOUNGIZA
Food Resources
Table 14.10 provides a list of the possible food resources represented by the botanical remains
from Tsoungiza and their nutritional values. The major sources of vegetable protein would
have been the legumes and cereals, while almond, acorn, and olive would have provided
substantial amounts of fat and more calories per 100 g than the other resources. Leaching of
the acorns would have reduced the water-soluble vitamins such as vitamin C,18 but this could
have been recovered from other sources such as grapes or leafy greens, which were probably
collected but have left no trace in the archaeological record.
The use of acorns for food has been a topic of much study, particularly in the Americas where
ethnographic and archaeological evidence indicate that Native Americans in California and
the eastern United States relied on them heavily.19 In the Old World, however, acorns have
more often been identified with pig husbandry, and their use as a human food resource
relegated to times of scarcity, crop failure, and famine.20 Vencl has summarized the data on
archaeobotanical finds of acorns in southern and southwestern Europe (Spain, Portugal,
southern France, and Italy) and notes that “acorns occur at a total of 24% of sites containing
18. Petruso and Wickens 1984.
19. Gifford 1936; Driver 1953; Basgall 1987.
20. Vencl 1996.
878
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.9. BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM CONTEXTS OF MIXED DATE AT TSOUNGIZA
Context
EU 6
Fill/
wash?
EU 6 Fill EU 6 Fill EU 6 Fill EU 6 Fill
EU 7
North of
Wall 26
EU 6
912
EU 6
911
EU 6
913
EU 6
915
EU 6
916
EU 7
1242
Collection method
WS
WS
WS
T
T
WS
Vol. deposit (liters)
40
48
48
Vol. deposit sieved (liters)
10
12
12
% deposit sieved
25
25
25
SU
Species
0
0
Total
18
154
18
52
100
34
Part
CEREALS
Triticum dicoccum
seed
–
2
–
–
–
–
2
Triticum sp.
seed
–
–
[2]
–
–
–
[2]
Hordeum sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
Cereal indet.
seed
[6]
[13]
–
–
–
–
[19]
Vicia ervilia
seed
2
–
–
–
–
–
2
Lens sp.
seed
–
6 [9]
1
–
–
[1]
7 [10]
Ficus sp.
seed
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
Pyrus type
seed
1
–
–
–
–
–
1
Pyrus type
fruit
–
–
–
2
–
–
2
Vitis sp.
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
1
Olea sp.
seed
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
Leguminosae indet.
seed
–
1 [4]
–
–
–
–
1 [4]
Seed indet.
seed
–
–
1
–
–
–
1
capsule
[1]
–
–
–
–
–
[1]
–
2
1
–
–
–
3
3 [8]
11 [26]
4 [2]
2
–
2 [1]
22 [37]
Total items nonwood
11
37
6
2
–
3
59
Items per liter sieved
1.1
3.1
0.5
–
–
0.2
1.1
Quercus pubescens type
–
–
1
–
–
–
1
Indet.
–
11
51
24
1
–
87
–
11
52
24
1
–
88
LEGUMES
FRUITS AND NUTS
INDETERMINATE
Species indet.
Carbon indet.
Total whole seeds
WOOD
Total wood fragments
Key: See Table 14.1
palaeobotanical evidence, representing the third or fourth most frequent palaeobotanical
species in each of the countries.”21 Of the 36 Greek sites discussed by Kroll, 10 (27%) had
remains of acorns.22 Aside from those at Lerna, noted above, the only other contemporary
remains of acorn come from the EBA levels at Kastanas.23 They are present on sites dating
from the Early Neolithic (Sesklo, Nea Nikomedea, Prodromos) through the Early Iron Age
21. Vencl 1996.
22. Kroll 1991.
23. Kroll 1983.
TABLE 14.10. NUTRITIONAL DATA FOR SOME EDIBLE SPECIES FROM SITES IN THE AEGEAN REGION (100 G EDIBLE PORTION)
Species
Calories
Water
(g)
Carbohydrate
(g)
Fiber
(g)
Ash
(g)
Barley
318
10.5
9.7
1.9
75.4
6.5
2.5
55
341
4.5
16
0.38
0.20
7.2
trace
Einkorn wheat
–
8.3
14.7
2.2
4.0
13.5
5.6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Emmer wheat
–
8.9
12.0
1.5
71.9
10.7
3.9
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
337
11.2
25.0
1.0
59.5
3.7
3.3
59
423
7.4
570
0.56
0.24
2.2
0.5
Bitter vetch
–
–
22.8
1.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lathyrus
–
–
24.4
0.5
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Pea
343
12.0
22.5
2.0
61.0
4.7
2.5
8.0
290
5.9
83
0.57
0.17
3.0
1.0
Almond
547
4.7
18.6
54.1
19.6
2.7
3.0
254
475
4.4
0.0
0.25
0.67
4.6
trace
Apple
32
91.4
0.4
0.3
7.7
1.1
0.2
12
146
0.2
767
0.02
0.06
0.4
1,677.6
Pistachio (wild)
–
–
7.2
13.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Grape
57
83.9
2.0
12.9
12.9
3.5
0.8
62
41
2.2
80
0.04
0.04
1.2
6.0
Olive
884
0.0
0.0
100.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
20–30
6–8
5–20
60–80
2–3
2–3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Lentil
Acorn*
200–500
Protein
(g)
Fat
(g)
Calcium Potassium
(mg)
(mg)
Iron
(g)
Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Ascorbic
(I.U.)
(mg)
(mg)
(mg) Acid (mg)
Sources: After Franchthi 7, pp. 115, 126, 152; USDA Food Composition Tables (http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcompdata).
Note: Where no amount is given, data are unavailable; where 0.0 is recorded, the nutrient is not present.
*Data on various species combined from Petruso and Wickens 1984; Ford 1979; Basgall 1987.
880
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
(Kastanas) in Greece and most likely played a role in the diet. From ancient sources we
know that the Arcadians, Macedonians, and the people of Mount Ida ate acorns.
Depending on the species, acorns can be stored for up to 30 years24 and can be collected
in large quantities in a relatively short time. Basgall estimates up to 25 kg per day could be
collected, and notes that it took California Native Americans one month to collect sufficient
acorns for a full year’s consumption.25 Oak trees do not produce large crops each year, but
rather every two to four years on average. In a large stand of trees, however, some will bear a
rich mast in any given year, yielding anywhere from 25 kg to 450 kg of acorns.26 One hectare
of mature oak woods could produce between 350 kg and 1,000 kg of acorns.
Crops
Emmer and einkorn wheat, barley, lentils, peas, bitter vetch, fava beans, and possibly other
legumes were the principal crops grown in the Early Helladic period at Tsoungiza. The
absence of discernible change in these species from EH I through EH III suggests that the
Tsoungiza agricultural system was highly stable. There is no clear evidence for increased
exploitation of marginal land resulting from the introduction of the plow, as suggested
by the figurines (739–742) of yoked oxen from Tsoungiza discussed by Pullen,27 and the
osteological evidence for EBA use of cattle as draft animals, as reported by Halstead (p. 793,
above). The predominance of barley, however, may indicate that more marginal areas were
being utilized and/or that the climate was becoming drier.
The question of whether the cereals were grown as individual crops or as a maslin is
impossible to answer given the nature of the deposits. There is no pure deposit of any cereal
or legume, but rather every sample contained seeds of at least two and usually three of
the primary species. Van der Veen and Fieller have shown by experimentation the number
of seeds in a sample that are necessary to estimate that particular species’ contribution
to a population.28 To determine with a 95% confidence level (±5%) that a given species
constitutes 50% of a crop population of infinite size, at least 384 seeds of that taxon must be
present in the sample. For a taxon making up 10% or 90% of the population, at least 138
seeds of that species must be counted. In no sample from EH Tsoungiza are there more than
75 grains of any cereal or legume, and thus the sample sizes are too small to gain any insight
into the composition of the crop population.
Glynis Jones has noted, however, that on the Aegean island of Amorgos crops considered
by the farmers as a maslin of wheat and barley may contain a substantially greater proportion
of one than another, depending on weather, soil conditions, or competition. Thus a wheatbarley maslin may contain up to 80% of one or the other taxon. “Farmers reported that
they tended to sow wheat-rich seed on the better soils, while the less demanding barley was
favored for the poorer soils.”29 At the same time, crops that are considered pure may also
contain a mixture of different cereals depending on the previous crop sown in the field or
contamination of the seed sown.30
The ubiquity analysis of the major crop plants at Tsoungiza (Fig. 14.46) indicates that
barley is present in a greater percentage of samples than either einkorn or emmer wheat
in all periods. This may be an indication that barley was grown more often, perhaps as a
pure crop, or formed a greater percentage of a maslin. Jane Renfrew has suggested that
barley became the principal crop in southern Greece in the Bronze Age because it was
more tolerant than wheat of the dry conditions.31 At Tsoungiza, while einkorn wheat is fairly
24. Merriam 1918; Turner 1989.
25. Basgall 1987.
26. Vencl 1996.
27. Pullen 1992, and pp. 580–582, above.
28. Van der Veen and Fieller 1982.
29. Jones and Halstead 1995, p. 104.
30. Jones and Halstead 1995.
31. Renfrew 1966.
AGRICULTURE AND SUBSISTENCE AT EH TSOUNGIZA
881
Percent
Percent Occurrence
Occurrence in
in Samples
Samples
90
90
Einkorn
Einkorn
80
80
70
70
Emmer
Emmer
60
60
Barley
Barley
50
50
40
40
Lentil
Lentil
30
30
Bitter Vetch
Bitter
20
20
10
10
Fig
Fig
00
FN (n = 5)
EH I (n = 30)
EH II (n = 71)
EH III (n = 13)
Figure 14.46. Ubiquity of selected crop species in all phases at Tsoungiza
common across the site in most periods, emmer wheat is less well represented and both
wheats are less ubiquitous than barley. These data may lend some support to Renfrew’s
thesis.
That early farmers made choices on the basis of available moisture can be seen in an
Egyptian example. In letters of the Egyptian Hekanakht to his household in 2002 b.c., he instructs his family that grain land is to be planted with barley, unless the Nile is high, and then
it should be planted with emmer.32 It is probable that such choices were made in Greece at
this time as well, with careful planning of which crops to grow on what land depending on
the previous year’s rainfall or flooding of the river. Since barley is more drought-tolerant
than wheat, especially emmer, it would have been the grain of choice in dry years. If the environment generally was becoming drier throughout the Early Bronze Age, barley may have
been the preferred grain in many regions of southern Greece.
Unequivocal evidence for climate change in southern Greece during the Early Bronze Age
is scant at best. A pollen core from the Kleonai Valley, approximately 5 km east of the Nemea
Valley, is from the only palynological study undertaken in the region of Tsoungiza. The coring
location is at the head of the Kleonai spring, situated within limestone topography much like
the Nemea River. The Kleonai core sediments have been dated to between approximately
10,403 b.p. and 1820 b.p., corresponding to the period from the early Holocene into the
Roman period.33
Within the Kleonai pollen core, Zone SKK4 reflects vegetation present between 3829 ± 50
b.p. to 3345 ± 70 b.p., corresponding to the Bronze Age.34 Because this zone is representative
of the entire Bronze Age, it is impossible to correlate the pollen data with shifts in settlement,
land use, or climate that occur specifically within the Early Bronze Age.35 In addition, species
that are well represented archaeologically, such as Vitis (grape), are poorly represented in
the pollen core.36 In general however, the Bronze Age pollen data indicate an increased
presence of macchia, including Quercus coccifera type, Arbutus, Phylleria, Pistacia (pistachio),
and Leguminosae (legumes), a slight increase in Pinus and Abies, the presence of deciduous
species of Quercus, Tilia (lime), Ostrya (hop-hornbeam), Castanea (chestnut), Juglans,
Platanus, and significant increases in Olea (olive) and Gramineae (grasses).37 In addition, the
range of herbaceous species widens, indicating an “expansion of grassland communities”
during the Bronze Age as a whole.38
32. Baer 1963.
33. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993.
34. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993, p. 353 and table 3.
35. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993, p. 353.
36. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993, p. 353.
37. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993, p. 353.
38. Atherden and Hall 1994.
882
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
Despite the absence of exact correlation between macrobotanical, settlement, and palynological data in the region, Zone SKK4 of the Kleonai pollen core suggests prehistoric
changes in land use and/or climate in the region. In particular, the increase in cereal and
grass pollen, olive, pine, and fir on the one hand, and the decline of deciduous oak on the
other, indicate an increased intensity of land use from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age.39
The expansion of grassland and macchia may also be an indication of increased aridity and
raises the question of whether an increase in aridity may have prompted an expansion of
agriculture into previously uncultivated areas such as the hillsides. Without more detailed
palynological or geomorphological data, however, it is not possible to answer this question.
Aside from the prevalence of barley at Tsoungiza, lentils are also well represented across
the site and occur in 25%–50% of the samples in each period. Bitter vetch is relatively rare at
Tsoungiza, as are fava beans. Both of these species require processing to remove toxins prior
to consumption and are thus somewhat more labor intensive than lentils. In addition, this
processing, soaking and removal of the seed coat, makes them less susceptible to preservation
through carbonization. That bitter vetch was grown as a crop in Bronze Age Greece has been
demonstrated at Platia Magoula Zarkou, where one sample was a pure deposit of this species.40
Fava beans may also have been grown as a pure crop in Bronze Age Greece, according to
evidence from Lerna in the EH II deposits41 and the EBA samples from Skoteini Cave.42
Whether cereals or legumes, most crops must undergo a variety of processing steps in
order for the seed to be usable as a food source. Much has been written in recent years about
crop-processing activities related to hulled cereals, based on ethnographic research, and
we now have a reasonably good idea of the basic steps and resulting by-products that may
occur on archaeological sites.43 These are illustrated in Figure 14.47, and it can be seen that
there are several points at which the by-products may become charred, either deliberately
or accidentally, and thus be preserved.
In examining the contents of the pits and other contexts from EH Tsoungiza, we attempted to assess the nature of the plant remains in terms of the possible by-products of crop processing. Here again we were hindered by sample size and the difficulty of identifying many
of the wild, possibly weed, seeds to the species level. On a very basic level, we can conclude
that many of the samples do contain by-products of crop processing such as chaff, and seeds
of genera that include weedy species that are common agricultural weeds. Identification of
the specific step in the processing, however, is much more difficult because all deposits also
contain a number of seeds, notably fig but also other plants, that cannot be considered field
weeds (e.g., Najus, pistachio, apple/Sorbus). In addition, the overall paucity of “weed” seeds
precludes the possibility of any statistical analyses such as have been conducted by Jones.44
According to the categorization of by-products from coarse and fine sieving suggested by
Jones, possible weed seeds from both processes are present in samples from Tsoungiza, and
are mixed in those deposits in which they do occur. There is no clear evidence for the deposition from any particular processing step, and we must conclude that the deposits sampled
represent mixed refuse from several sources.
The Agricultural Calendar
It is likely that the cereals were sown in the autumn after the beginning of the rains, when
the ground could be easily worked. Barley and legumes could have been sown in the spring.
It is customary today to rotate cereal and legume crops, as well as to fallow some of the fields
39. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993, p. 355.
40. Jones and Halstead 1993.
41. Hopf 1961.
42. Mangafa 1993.
43. Hillman 1981, 1984; Jones 1984, 1987, 1990; Jones et
al. 2000.
44. Jones 1984, 1987.
AGRICULTURE AND SUBSISTENCE AT EH TSOUNGIZA
883
Figure 14.47. Crop-processing steps for hulled cereals. After Hillman 1981, 1984; Jones 1984
so as not to deplete the soil. According to the geomorphologic study of the Nemea Valley,45
the valley was marshy or swampy in some areas due to slow drainage. These very wet areas
would not have been suitable for the cultivation of cereals and legumes, but the edges of the
alluvial plain and the lower slopes of the hills (Profitis Ilias and Pharmakas) would have been
better drained. In the lower areas that retained more moisture, vines would have done well,
although there is no clear evidence for cultivation of this plant in the Early Helladic period
due to an overlap in the size range of domesticated and wild grapes46 and the difficulties of
distinguishing the two with a small sample.
Collection of fruits and nuts would have taken place primarily in the late summer and
autumn. There may have been other resources collected in the winter for which we have no
evidence, such as a variety of leafy greens of the Compositae and other families, and some
roots and tubers of plants such as sedges or rushes that would have grown on the edge of the
river or in marshy areas in the valley.
Y ield
The amount of any crop produced at a given place or time is dependent on a variety of
factors. Yield may vary considerably depending on climatic conditions, soil fertility, drainage
and preparation, method of sowing, and weeding. The extrapolation of yields in a prehistoric
context from modern or recent figures for yields, even when the crops are grown under
“traditional” regimes, is at best highly speculative. Einkorn and emmer wheat are still grown
today in parts of the Near East and Europe, as well as on experimental farms such as Butzer
in England and in Jalés, France. Thus, figures are available for crop yields in given years,
and Table 14.11 gives some idea of the amount of product that might be expected from
45. Wright 1990.
46. Hansen 1988.
884
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
TABLE 14.11. MODERN COMPARATIVE DATA FOR POTENTIAL YIELD OF CROPS
AT TSOUNGIZA
Crop
Sowing Rate
(Kg/Ha)
Einkorn
67.5
Einkorn
411
Emmer
63
Two-row barley
50
Lentil
Bitter vetch
Yield
(Kg/Ha)
Place
1,571
France
Willcox 1999, p. 114
692
France
Willcox 1999, p. 114
England
Reynolds 1999, p. 269
410
Turkey
Hillman 1973, p. 237
70
400
Turkey
Hillman 1973, p. 237
70
700
Turkey
Hillman 1973, p. 237
170
1,500
Turkey
Hillman 1973, p. 237
Grass pea
70
900
Turkey
Hillman 1973, p. 237
Chickpea
30
250
Turkey
Hillman 1973, p. 237
Common vetch
1,730–2,480
Reference
the primary crops identified at Tsoungiza. A yield of 410–2,480 kg/ha of grain (emmer,
einkorn, barley) is possible, depending on the type of cereal, amount sown, soil, and climate
conditions. The yields at EH Tsoungiza were more likely on the lower end of this range
(410–692 kg/ha) than the very high rates obtained at Little Butzer Farm in England, where
climate conditions are considerably different.
In addition, the method of sowing has a significant effect on the yield of a crop. According to Sigaut, “broadcast sowing yields ca. 4–10:1 (kg harvested:kg sown), while hand sowing, use of a seed drill or dibble stick produces a yield of 50–150:1.”47 Broadcast sowing is less
labor intensive than using a seed drill or dibble stick, but also much less productive relative
to the amount sown, due to loss of seed to birds or other factors, as it is not planted and
covered. We do not know how the crops in the Nemea Valley were sown, so obtaining an
accurate estimate of yield is not possible. From tomb paintings we know that the Egyptians
broadcast their seed, whereas a seed drill was used in Mesopotamia.48 A clay figure of a plowing scene from Cyprus shows two people with some sort of container held between them,
perhaps indicating the broadcasting of seed, so both methods were known in the eastern
Mediterranean at this time.49
The weather conditions during any given year can also have a dramatic affect on the
crops, even on a microscale. Sudden and severe storms near harvest time can wipe out an
entire crop. This can happen in one part of a region while an area a few kilometers distant
is not touched by the storms.50 Drought in a single year or over a number of years can
destroy the crops. Yet it is also possible to have “bumper” crops in a given year as a result of
excellent growing conditions, good weather, or extraordinary seed. Neither type of result
is archaeologically discernible at Tsoungiza, as the plant remains we are examining were
deposited over time in the different areas of the site and rarely represent a single year’s
harvest.
At Tsoungiza, the paucity of remains overall precludes the possibility of discussing whether
the crops were grown separately or as maslin, let alone whether there were good or bad
yields. The ubiquity studies done for the Tsoungiza remains are an attempt to overcome
this limitation by looking at how well represented across the site the different plants are as
a measure of how common they were at the time of occupation. The assumption is that the
more common the plant, the more likely it was a primary resource.
47. Sigaut 1999, p. 279.
48. Singer, Holmyard, and Hall 1954.
49. Dikaios 1940.
50. Hansen 1988.
AGRICULTURE AND SUBSISTENCE AT EH TSOUNGIZA
885
The method of recording yield also varies, often being expressed in mass per unit of area
(e.g., kg/ha, kg/dönum), but also in volume per unit of area (bushels/acre). Several factors need to be considered when using these measurements, however. The way a particular
bushel basket is filled or the moisture content of the grain when weighed can affect the
results. Whether cleaned, fully dehusked grain or an only partially processed crop is being
measured will also skew the measurements. Sigaut notes that “until the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries our ancestors tended, however, to think in terms of a weight yield for grain
sown versus that harvested (5 for 1, 12 for 1).”51 In Table 14.11 the results of various studies
are recorded in kilograms of cleaned but not dehusked grain per hectare.
In light of all of these caveats, can we say anything useful about the potential quantity of
cereals and legumes that could have been produced at EH Tsoungiza and whether those
resources would have been sufficient for the people living there? Geological studies of the
region indicate swampy areas were just north of the site, but well-drained arable land would
have been available to the west and southwest. A rough estimate of that area would be
150 ha. If crop rotation was practiced, perhaps as much as half of the land was fallow at any
time, so that roughly 75 ha might have been cultivated. If the plow was in use, then more
marginal lands also could have been brought under cultivation. In the case of wheat, if we
use a figure of 500 kg/ha as the average productivity of Tsoungiza fields in the Early Helladic
period, then 37,500 kg could have been produced on 75 ha. If we use a figure of 400 kg/ha
for barley, then 30,000 kg might have been possible if all of the nonfallow land was planted
in this crop. These are maximum figures, since not all of the land would have been used for
a single crop and the cereals may have been grown as maslin. Nonetheless, it gives us some
idea of whether the available land could support the people living at Tsoungiza in the Early
Helladic period.
In Turkey, a caloric intake of 3,100 calories/day, 80% of which was from wheat, required
320 kg/person/year.52 Van Wersch notes that in Messenia the consumption of cereals was
between 305 and 360 liters/person/year with a diet of 70% barley and 30% wheat.53 This
is the equivalent of between 122 kg and 180 kg/person/year. These figures suggest that
about 100 people could have been supported by the wheat or barley crops at Tsoungiza at
one time, but it seems unlikely that the population would have been nearly that large. If we
estimate the average population size in EH Tsoungiza to have been about 200 people, with
a requirement of 300 kg/person/year of grain, then 60,000 kg of grain would have been
required, not including that used as seed for the next year’s crop. In a good year on good
land, this might require sowing about 120 ha in cereals. If there were only 150 ha of arable
land available, then leaving half of this fallow each year would not have been a viable option.
Less desirable land may have been cultivated in barley, which is less demanding than wheat.
Alternatively, there may have been little or no fallowing of the land.
From the plant remains recovered from Tsoungiza it is not possible to determine if
monocrops of each of the legumes were grown, nor if any would have been the sole legume
crop in a given year. Even if they were grown as separate crops, as Jones points out, “the
pulses, which share an early harvest date and more or less scrambling growth habit, tend to
contaminate each other,”54 so they probably would have been harvested together. We also do
not know if any of the legumes or other crops could have been grown as fodder rather than
food for humans. Today, legumes such as common vetch and grass pea are grown in Greece
as fodder.55 If fodder crops were grown, then the amount of land available for other crops
would have been reduced.
51. Sigaut 1999, p. 275.
52. Hillman 1973.
53. Van Wersch 1972.
54. Jones and Halstead 1995, p. 112.
55. Jones and Halstead 1995, p. 103.
886
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
The use of the plow, as indicated by artifactual and osteological evidence from Tsoungiza,56
would have further extended the available cropland to the hill slopes surrounding the Nemea
Valley. In other regions of the Argolid, this expansion has been shown to have resulted in
large-scale erosion at the end of the Early Helladic period. It is interesting to note, however,
that despite the use of the plow at Tsoungiza, the geomorphological evidence indicates that
there was no period of major erosion in the Nemea Valley during the Bronze Age, unlike
in the Southern Argolid and the Berbati Valley.57 Studies in these regions indicate that a
major period of erosion took place at the end of the Early Bronze Age, and it has been
postulated that it is related to the introduction of the plow and the clearing of hillsides
for the cultivation of the olive. Lack of terracing or other conservation methods allowed a
substantial amount of soil to be lost and resulted, in these areas, in the abandonment of the
region in the Middle Bronze Age.
If the area of cultivation did expand to the hillsides in the Nemea Valley as a result of the
introduction of the plow, the results there were not the same as those seen in the Argolid,
perhaps due to the small-scale nature of the farming practiced at Tsoungiza. Archaeobotanical support for this suggestion is seen in the consistently mixed nature of the botanical deposits, the absence of deposits of pure crops, and continued reliance on wild resources. Nor
is it possible to state that the newly cleared and plowed areas were used for olive cultivation,
as the paucity of olive remains from EH Tsoungiza allows no confirmation of olive cultivation at this time. The likelihood that farming at Tsoungiza was small-scale is further supported by the unspecialized nature of animal husbandry indicated by the faunal assemblage. In
addition, the absence of erosional sequences in the Nemea Valley at this time, together with
the absence of built facilities for crop storage, suggests that farming at a scale significantly
above the level of subsistence was most likely not practiced. That Tsoungiza was abandoned
for some time in the Middle Bronze Age is clear, but we cannot, with the available evidence,
attribute this to the environmental degradation that has been suggested for other areas.
CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of the plant remains from Tsoungiza has provided us with a modest insight into
the exploitation of the environment during the Final Neolithic period and the Early Bronze
Age in southern Greece. Despite the paucity of material, it is possible to identify several
cereal and legume crops, as well as fruits, nuts, and other wild plants that may have been
utilized for food or other purposes. It appears that barley and lentils formed the staples in
the diet, while emmer and einkorn wheat, fig, acorn, and various other wild plants provided
additional resources. The data further suggest that farming, although extensive in area as
suggested by the use of the plow, was most likely practiced on a small scale.
Relatively few EBA sites have yielded plant remains, and we have tried to incorporate all
those known to us in our discussion. We have seen that there are a few differences among
sites, such as the presence of flax at Lerna where none exists at Tsoungiza. There are also a few
similarities, particularly in the types of cereal and legume crops grown. Indeed, these crops
continue to be the staple agricultural products throughout the later Bronze Age as well.58
The palaeoethnobotanical data, in particular the relative abundance of barley over wheat,
may lend support to the hypothesis that in southern Greece a greater dependence on barley
was a response to conditions that were drier than those found in northern Greece during the
Bronze Age. These more arid conditions may also be reflected in the Kleonai pollen core. An
56. For artifacts, see Pullen 1992, and pp. 580–582, above;
for osteological analyses, see Chap. 13.
57. Runnels and van Andel 1987; Jameson, Runnels, and
van Andel 1994; Wells and Runnels 1996.
58. Hansen 2000.
APPENDIX. SPECIES OF PLANT REMAINS FROM FN–EH III TSOUNGIZA
887
estimation of the amount of land needed to support the small EBA population at Tsoungiza
and the amount available in the vicinity of the site suggest that sufficient arable resources
were present, even if aridity increased and crop rotation was practiced. The introduction of
the plow during this time would have further increased the amount of cultivatable land.
Surveys of other areas of the Argolid have indicated that the relatively dense EBA settlement pattern changed due to extensive erosion brought on by both the expansion of farming to the hillsides, with the introduction of the plow, and the supposed cultivation of the
olive. The geomorphological studies of the Nemea Valley do not show such an erosional
phase, however, nor are the few fragments of olive an indication of olive cultivation. The palaeoethnobotanical evidence from Tsoungiza is insufficient to permit further analysis here,
so it is only with additional remains from other EBA sites that we may be able to address
better the issues and questions posed in this chapter.
APPENDIX. SPECIES OF PLANT REMAINS FROM FN–EH III
TSOUNGIZA
Cereals
Triticum monococcum ssp. monococcum, cultivated einkorn wheat (Fig. 14.48). Erect-growing cereal requiring
climates with mild winters and an annual precipitation of between 508 and 762 mm; does best on welldrained, stiff, clay loams; does not do well on loose, sandy, or peaty soils or poorly drained soils. Most wheat
grown in Europe is winter-sown and requires the cold winter period in order to reach full development.59
Figure 14.48. Triticum monococcum. Scale ca. 2:1
Triticum turgidum L. ssp. dicoccum (Schrank) Thell., emmer wheat (Fig. 14.49). Hulled cereal grown under
cultivation. It is sown in October–November and harvested in May, though it can also be planted as late as
March. It is very adaptable to a variety of soil conditions and is resistant to several diseases. Like einkorn,
this cereal is generally winter-sown, on well-drained soil. It is a hardy annual that is still grown in some
areas of Europe and the Near East today.
Figure 14.49. Triticum dicoccum (left), Triticum dicoccum spiklet fork and glume base (right).
Scale ca. 2:1 and 10:1, respectively
59. Renfrew 1973.
888
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
Figure 14.50. Hordeum distichum (left), Lens sp. (center), Pisum sp. (right). Scale ca. 2.5:1, ca. 3:1, ca. 5.1, respectively
Figure 14.51. Vicia ervilia (left), Vicia faba (center), Vicia sp. (right). Scale ca. 5:1, ca. 2.5:1, and ca. 3:1, respectively
Hordeum vulgare, hulled barley (Fig. 14.50 left). Both two- and six-row barley may be present at Tsoungiza, but
it is not possible to determine this with certainty from the remains recovered. Barley grows well on fertile
loam soils but can also survive on poorer, more saline or sandy sediment. It is more hardy than emmer
wheat and will produce a crop under conditions in which wheat will fail.
Legumes
Cicer sp., chickpea.
Lens sp., lentil (Fig. 14.50 center). Legume with domesticated and wild varieties. It requires a warm, frost-free
climate for cultivation and is often spring-sown. It prefers well-drained sandy soils.
Pisum sp., pea (Fig. 14.50 right). Hairless, tendril-climbing annual legume with compound leaves and red to
purple flowers. The cultivated Pisum sativum requires a cool growing season and is often spring-sown. It is
best suited to medium or slightly impoverished soils such as well-drained soils of limestone origin.
Vicia ervilia, bitter vetch (Fig. 14.51 left). Cultivated legume today grown primarily as fodder crop. It thrives
in cool temperate climates and survives as a winter crop in mild climates. It grows best on rich loam soils.
Vicia faba, fava bean (Fig. 14.51 center). Winter and spring-sown legume. It is less tolerant of cold than some
cereals. It prefers well-drained, stiff, clayey soils, but tolerates well-manured light soils if water retention is
high enough.
Vicia sp. (Fig. 14.51 right).
Fruits and Nuts
Ficus carica, fig (Fig. 14.52 left). Tree or shrub growing in well-watered places such as near springs or damp
hollows. The fruits ripen in two stages, with the first ripening occurring in June and July, the second in
August and September.
Malus sylvestris Miller, apple, crab apple (Fig. 14.52 center). Erect, branching deciduous tree or shrub bearing
pome fruits. The species is found in Mediterranean climates generally at higher altitudes with sufficient
winter cooling and sunlight.
Olea sp., olive. Branching erect tree or shrub reaching heights of 10 m. It occurs in maquis or garigue communities in habitats such as rocky hill slopes. The few fragmentary remains of olive pits at Tsoungiza preclude
their identification as either wild Olea europaea var. sylvestris or domesticated Olea europaea var. europaea.
Pistacia sp., pistachio. Anacardaceae. Shrub or small tree of which two species are known from Greece. Pistacia
lentiscus is a typical element of maquis vegetation growing from sea level up to 200 m. Pistacia terebinthus is
found on dry rocky slopes and hillsides as well as pine forest from sea level up to about 1,300 m. The fruit
is a small bony nutlet covered with red to dark purple thin flesh. The few remains from Tsoungiza do not
permit a more accurate identification.
APPENDIX. SPECIES OF PLANT REMAINS FROM FN–EH III TSOUNGIZA
889
ca. 1:3
Figure 14.52. Ficus carica fruit fragments (left), Malus/Sorbus fruit interior (center left) and exterior (center right),
Quercus sp. (right). Scale ca. 1:1 except as indicated
Prunus amygdalus Batsch (Prunus dulcis [Miller] D. A. Webb), almond. Rosaceae. Small spiny tree that produces
nuts in August. It is found on dry slopes, calcareous gorges, and in scrub or oak forest between 150 m and
1,800 m.60
Cf. Rubus sp., raspberry. Rosaceae. Erect, thorny, thick-growing perennial. It occurs in coniferous and deciduous
forest and sets fruit from June through the autumn.
Vitis vinifera, grape. Vitaceae. Woody climbing shrub with branching tendrils. Wild grapes are found in riparian
forest and woodlands with sufficient moisture. It is not possible to determine if the few EH seeds from
Tsoungiza are wild or domesticated.
Quercus sp., oak (Fig. 14.52 right). Fagaceae. No nut shells or cupules from the acorns were recovered by
Harland or though the flotation efforts of NVAP, so it is not possible to determine the species of oak
represented here. The size of the carbonized nut meats (L. 0.020 m, W. 0.008 m) suggests that these are
from a species such as Quercus aegilops. L. (Quercus macrolepis Kotschy), the valonia oak, a deciduous tree.
The whole acorns of this plant measure up to 0.035 m long. This species is not found in the area today,
although the pollen data reveal evidence of oak present during the Bronze Age.61 The oak wood charcoal
from Tsoungiza is all of a deciduous type as well. Theophrastus (Hist. pl. 3.8.2) notes that the acorns of the
valonia oak are the sweetest.
Useful/Medicinal Plants
Lathyrus sp., grasspea (Fig. 14.53) Climbing annual or perennial herbs found in dry grassland and in ruderal
habitats. The seeds are used as food for humans or as animal fodder. They may be toxic to some humans
if eaten in excess.62
Medicago sp., medick. Annual or perennial shrub or herb. Occurs in open habitats such as coastal areas,
roadsides, cultivated fields, grasslands. The seeds and sprouts are edible.
Cf. Hypericum sp., Saint-John’s-wort (Fig. 14.54). A low-growing herb or shrub found in rocky terrain in maquis,
olive groves, vineyards, and depleted soils of cultivation or waste areas. Leaves, flowers, roots, and seeds
used for a variety of medicinal purposes.
Malva sp., mallow. Erect annual herb in arable fields, fallow fields, and roadways. The leaves and ripe fruit are
edible.
Figure 14.53. Lathyrus sp. (left), Lathyrus sativus (right). Scale ca. 5:1, ca. 3:1, respectively
Figure 14.54. Hypericum sp. (left), Hypericum sp. seeds with adhering capsule fragment (right). Scale ca. 5:1
60. Davis 1972, p. 22.
61. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993.
62. Hansen 2000.
890
PALAEOETHNOBOTANY
Weeds of Cereals
Cf. Lolium sp., darnel, ryegrass. Gramineae. Annual grass common as a weed in wheat fields.
Cf. Bromus sp., bromegrass. Gramineae. Erect, spreading annual winter grass prevalent in cereal crops, meadows, pastures, roadsides, and waste places.
Phalaris sp., canary grass. Tufted temperate annual common in cultivated areas or waste land.
Avena sp., oat. Gramineae. Annual grass often found in disturbed ground, cultivated fields, and maquis. It
flowers in April or May.
Plantago sp., plantain. Plantaginaceae. Annual or perennial herbs or shrubs found in moist fields or disturbed
ground. There are a wide variety of species flowering between March and July.
Water Plants
Cf. Apium sp. One species, Apium nodiflorum (wild celery), grows by local springs in the vicinity of Nemea. It is
a creeping perennial common on wet ground, in ditches, or by streams. It grows from sea level to 1,100 m
and flowers between April and June.
Schoenus sp. Perennial or annual of Cyperaceae family. Thickly tufted with thick tuberous roots, it grows in
marshy areas and stream sides in fresh or saltwater.
Najus sp., naiad. Najaceae. Submerged annual, fresh-water plant that grows in stagnant or slow-flowing water.
It flowers between June and September.
Carex sp. Cyperaceae. Many species occur in Greece. They are found mostly in marshy or semi-marshy places.
The stems can be used for straw to make mats or other woven items.
Scirpus sp., sedge. Cyperaceae. Grows in damp and marshy areas and flowers between March and September,
depending on the species. The stems can be used like those of Carex species. The tubers are edible.
Other Wild Plants
Adonis sp., pheasant’s eye. Ranunculaceae. Annual or perennial herb. Found on calcareous, rocky ground. It
flowers from April to June.
Cf. Alchemilla sp. Rosaceae. Perennial herb. They bloom from June to August. Most species grow in high
elevations and cold climates, and can also be found in damp places.
Cf. Amaranthus sp., amaranth. Amaranthaceae. Perennial herb or small shrub family that bears indehiscent fruits
from July to September. It is a ruderal found at the edges of cultivated fields, fallow, or abandoned fields.
Cf. Anchusa sp., alkanet. Ruderal favoring cultivated ground, vineyards.
Arum sp. Araceae. Found on margins of cultivated ground, rocky hillsides, and margins of streams between sea
level and 1,000 m. It flowers between March and May.
Astragalus sp., milk vetch. Leguminosae. Annual or perennial herbs or shrubs. The large number of species
(ca. 2,000) grow in a wide variety of habitats. A number of species yield tragacanth, a gum used for a
number of purposes.
Cf. Atriplex sp., saltbrush. Chenopodiaceae. Annual small shrub growing on disturbed ground, waste places.
Cf. Beta sp., beet. Chenopodiaceae. Wild beets are annual or perennial herbs that grow in disturbed ground
and sandy areas. They flower from September to April.
Cf. Chenopodium sp. Chenopodiaceae. Found in ruderal places and as weeds of cultivated ground.
Cirsium sp., thistle. Perennial or biennial herbs with prickly stems and leaves. Common in marshy environments,
particularly in granite and schist soils. Also ruderal, commonly occurring in dumps, pastures, orchards,
footpaths, and roads. The roots, leaves, stems, and stalks are edible raw or cooked.
Cf. Cucumis sp., cucumber or melon. Cucurbitaceae. Annual or perennial plant with fleshy fruit.
Cf. Echium sp., bugloss. Hairy biennial found in stony and sandy areas, roadsides, waste ground, and fallow
fields. It flowers from March to June.
Cf. Erodium sp., storksbill. Herbaceous winter annuals found in sandy areas, waste land, and cultivated fields.
The leaves are edible.
Filago sp. Compositae. Annual herb found on dry, rocky slopes, waste ground, sandy fields and vineyards from
sea level to 1,650 m. It flowers between March and June.
Cf. Fumaria sp., fumitory. Fumariaceae. Large annual climber common in stony areas, walls, and cultivated
ground.
Galeopsis sp., nettle. Labiatae. Annual herb generally occurring as a weed in cultivated fields, dumps, or paths.
Some species are also found in open habitats, river gravels, and clearings in woodland.
Galium sp., bedstraw. Rubiaceae. Herbaceous annual. A common weed colonizing ruderal, fallow, and cultivated
habitats in full sun and partial shade.
APPENDIX. SPECIES OF PLANT REMAINS FROM FN–EH III TSOUNGIZA
891
Figure 14.55. Scrophularia sp. Scale ca. 5:1
Figure 14.56. Unidentified seeds and plant parts. Scale ca. 5:1
Lamium sp., deadnettle. Labiatae. Annual or perennial herbs found in cultivated and fallow fields, vineyards,
waste ground, field margins, and irrigation canals from sea level to 1,500 m.
Cf. Lapsana sp., nipplewort. Compositae. Annual. Common habitats include disturbed areas such as roadsides
and field margins, streamsides, and rocky slopes from 100 m to 200 m. It flowers from March to May and
the fruit ripens in July.
Lithospermum arvense L. and Lithospermum sp., gromwell. Boraginaceae. Perennial creeping shrub. It has narrow
to lanceolate hirsute leaves with erect flowering stems ca. 0.001–0.004 m in length, with red to blue
flowers in compact heads; the nuts are shiny. Habitats are shady stony places, hedges, woods, especially on
calcareous soils. Flowers bloom April to July depending on species. Uses not reported.
Melissa sp., balm. Labiatae. Robust, erect, perennial herb 0.08–1.20 m high. It grows in damp thickets and
stream sides from sea level to 1,375 m and flowers between May and September.
Myosotis sp., forget-me-not. Boraginaceae. Perennial or annual herb that grows in damp areas, woods, or
hillsides, depending on the species.
Polygonum sp., knotweed. Polygonaceae. Annual or perennial herb or shrub often found in damp or wet areas,
fields, and disturbed ground. It flowers between May and September, depending on the species.
Cf. Potentilla sp., creeping cinquefoil. Rosaceae. Erect perennial or annual with thick roots and indehiscent
capsule fruits with domed and ridged surface. Generally on rough soil, stream banks, cultivated areas, and
marshy fields.
Cf. Ruppia sp., ditchgrass. Potamogetonaceae. Submerged aquatic perennial found in brackish pools and
ditches.
Cf. Scorpiurus sp. Leguminosae. Annual herb found in fields. It flowers between April and May.
Cf. Scrophularia sp., figwort (Fig. 14.55). Scrophulariaceae. Biennial herbs of waste ground, rocky, or sandy
areas. They flower between March and August, depending on the species.
Cf. Solanum sp., nightshade family. Solonaceae. Annual or perennial herb, depending on the species, that
flowers all year. It is found in waste places and disturbed ground.
Stachys sp., mint family. Labiatae. Annual or perennial herbs or shrublets found along streams, in damp thickets,
dry fields, and woods, depending on the species. Most species flower between June and September.
Trifolium sp. L., clover. Leguminosae. Biennial or perennial herb. It grows erect, up to 0.60 m in height with
branching, hirsute stems and alternate ovobate leaves in threes. The flowers are short and tightly clustered,
and the fruits are small pods with one seed. It flowers in pastures and fields from April to October.
Cf. Veronica sp., speedwell. Scrophulariaceae. Creeping annual herb or shrub 0.10–0.60 m long with broad,
lobate leaves and small white flowers emanating from leaf axils, and producing hirsute fruits. It is a typical
weed of agricultural areas, walls, rocks in a Mediterranean climate. The flowers bloom February to April.
Unidentified remains (Fig. 14.56). Several seeds and other plant parts were recovered. Among these are
pedicels, possibly from grapes, thorns, and other small stems.