14  PALAEOETHNOBOTANY by Julie M. Hansen and Susan E. Allen F rom the outset of the Nemea Valley Archaeological Project, one of the primary goals was to elucidate the subsistence practices of the inhabitants of Tsoungiza from the earliest period of occupation in the Final Neolithic Period through the Late Bronze Age. To this end James Wright, the director of the project, established a water-sieving system for the recovery of macroscopic plant remains, as well as other materials. In analyzing these remains we sought to identify the crop plants, their associated weeds, wild plant resources, and wood in order to reconstruct the subsistence system and the site’s environment. In this chapter we report on the Final Neolithic through Early Helladic III plant remains from Tsoungiza. These remains present an important opportunity to examine the changes and developments in the prepalatial Bronze Age in southern Greece. It was during this period that the plow was first utilized,1 allowing more land to come under cultivation. Recent archaeological and geological surveys indicate a shift in settlement patterns at the end of the EH period, and geological studies indicate extensive erosion in some areas. We sought to elucidate some of these changes through an examination of the plant remains insofar as they might indicate shifts in agricultural processes, cultivation of marginal areas, and a possible decline in crop quality toward the end of the Early Bronze Age. While not abundant, there is sufficient well-preserved plant material to address the primary questions noted above. The bulk of the FN–EH plant remains from Tsoungiza was recovered from EU 5. Emmer and einkorn wheat, barley, lentils, and bitter vetch are the principal crops represented in the EH levels at Tsoungiza. Among the wild food resources, fig, acorns, pears, pistachios, grapes, and olives are also present. The dominance of pine and deciduous oak among the wood resources suggests a more wooded environment than that which exists around the site today. Also of interest are the remains of wetland plants such as Najus, Schoenus, and Carex, indicating that wet or marshy areas must have existed in the area during the Early Bronze Age. PLANT REMAINS Preservation and Recovery The plant remains include seeds, fruit, wood, and other plant parts. Most of these were preserved by carbonization through exposure to fire. While it is clear that some of the EH structures were destroyed by fire (see, e.g., pp. 320–324, above), other sources for carbonized plant remains may have been hearths, burning in rubbish pits, or other localized fires. In most cases the precise means of carbonization is unclear. 1. Pullen 1992, and pp. 580–582, above. 806 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY A few of the remains have been preserved through mineralization, a process that occurs naturally due to the high concentration of silica or calcium carbonate in the seed coat of certain species, such as those of the Boraginaceae family (Lithospermum, Anchusa, Echium) or Ficus. In other instances the cause of mineralization is unclear, as carbonized and mineralized seeds frequently occur within the same deposit. It should be noted that Boraginaceae grow in the area today, so it is not certain that those examples found in the excavations are of ancient origin. In one case such material was found in relatively large quantity in only one sample within a phase or context (EH I Pit 17, see Table 14.2, below), perhaps indicating that these were caches of modern or recent seeds deposited by insects or rodents. The plant remains were recovered primarily through flotation, although some charred wood was collected by hand during excavation. The method of collection for each sample is noted in Tables 14.1–14.6, 14.8, and 14.9, below. Sediment from a Stratigraphic Unit (SU) to be sampled for flotation was taken in its entirety to a sample splitter, where it was measured in marked 12-liter buckets and divided into smaller units. A subsample ranging from 25% to 50% of the total was sent to the water sieve and the rest dry-sieved. In SUs in which only a small amount of sediment was excavated, 100% was water-sieved. Although the buckets used to measure the sediment were marked in liters, exact measurement was not always possible. For example, when the quantity of sediment fell between liter marks or when the sediment was clay-rich and formed clods, estimates to the half-liter were recorded. As is evident from Tables 14.1–14.6, 14.8, and 14.9 (below), information on the quantity of water-sieved and excavated sediment was not always recorded. For the FN–EH III deposits of EU 5, 123 samples were water-sieved. From EU 5, the total recorded volume of sediment water-sieved was 2,259 liters, a 28% subsample of the 7,930.5 liters excavated. Eleven samples from other excavation units fall into this time frame. From EH II, two samples each come from EU 2 and EU 3 and one from EU 7; from EH II–III, one sample is from EU 2; from EH III one sample is from EU 2, one is from EU 6, and three are from EU 10. Other samples from EU 7 and EU 6 are mixed EH and are also included in this report. The water-sieving system used at Tsoungiza consisted of a 1 x 1 m tank into which were fitted two nested screens with mesh of approximately 0.01 m above and 0.055 m below. Water flowed into this tank through a hose attached to a spigot and was controlled with a valve at the point of attachment to the tank. When full, the tank overflowed into a 0.001 m screen that collected floating material such as carbonized plant remains, small bones, shell, and other light debris. Heavier materials, such as pottery and chipped stone, were collected in the larger mesh screens in the tank. The heavy material was dried and sorted by a group of women from the village of Archaia Nemea. Botanical remains recovered from this material were incorporated into the light fraction (flot) from the same stratigraphic unit. Other categories of material were distributed to the relevant specialists. Sorting and Identification Samples were sorted completely using a stereo microscope at magnifications between 7x and 70x. Identifications were made by comparison to modern material in the collection at the Boston University Department of Archaeology and with the aid of a variety of atlases and floras.2 Many of the wild plants could not be identified to the species level or, in some cases, to the genus level, due to a lack of comparative material or the distortion/destruction of 2. Boissier 1867–1888; Beijerink 1947; Musil 1963; Tutin et al. 1964–1980; Bor 1968. PLANT REMAINS 807 identifying characteristics caused by carbonization and/or post-depositional processes. In these instances the plant name is preceded by “cf.” Sometimes it was possible to narrow down the likely species to a particular type on the basis of morphological characteristics, and these are identified with the suffix “type” in the plant lists. When neither genus nor species could be determined, the remains were assigned to a family and are listed under “indeterminate” in the plant lists. Those seeds for which a family could not be determined are listed as “Species indet.” Finally, the category “Carbon indet.” consisted of amorphous lumps of charred botanical material, possibly parenchymatous tissue, that were not identifiable to plant part or species. Identified Plant Taxa The plant remains are divided into several broad categories (see the appendix at the end of this chapter), following the work of Helmut Kroll in his report on the Kastanas remains.3 On the basis of their identification as domesticated species, many cereals and legumes are considered as “crops.” A variety of “fruits and nuts” (it is unclear whether any of these were domesticated) were also identified, and other “useful or medicinal” plants (according to ethnographic and ancient historical evidence), constitute a third category. “Weeds of cereals” are those wild plants that are often, but not exclusively, found in this context. “Water plants” are those that typically occur in wet, swampy, or marshy areas. “Other wild plants” consist of many species represented by very few seeds each that could not be securely identified to genus or species. There is little point in assigning these to a particular plant community, ecological zone, or human use given the uncertainty of the identification. Contexts and Taphonomy The following discussion is divided into sections by chronological period or phase as defined by the ceramics analyzed by Daniel Pullen. Tables 14.1–14.6, 14.8, and 14.9 (below) present the data and provide the following information: the context; Stratigraphic Unit (SU); collection method, whether by water sieve (WS) or by hand directly from the trench (T); the approximate number of liters of sediment excavated in that SU; the number of excavated liters watersieved; the sampling percentage that water-sieved volume represents of the total volume excavated; the species and the plant part identified. Numbers in brackets are numbers of fragments. For the cereals, it should be noted that any grain with the embryo intact, regardless of how fragmentary the rest of the grain, was counted as a whole seed. The total whole seeds and nonwood items (whole plus fragments), as well as the number of items per liter of sediment water-sieved, are provided at the end of each column. The species list, with additional information on the habit and habitats of the plants, is presented in the Appendix, pp. 887–891, below. As noted above, records of volumes excavated or water-sieved are not available for all samples. Those lacking this information are indicated with a question mark (?). Where records are incomplete, a plus sign (+) follows the number of liters, and as the number of items per liter was determined on the basis of the known volume, these density figures may be inflated. In other instances, the plant remains were recovered both from the watersieved sediment and by hand and are quantified together. In all cases, however, the handcollected material in these deposits was wood charcoal, so the nonwood density per liter is not affected. 3. Kroll 1983. 808 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY FN PLANT REMAINS Two Final Neolithic contexts, Pits 27 and 31, were sampled for plant remains (Fig. 14.1, Table 14.1). Pit 27 yielded very little material and does not warrant further discussion. Three stratigraphic units (SUs 891–893) and a ceramic vessel (4) from within Pit 31 yielded botanical material from a total of 40 liters of sediment water-sieved; all three cereal crops, emmer, einkorn, and barley, are represented (Fig. 14.2). The mixture of several species of legumes such as bitter vetch, chickpea, and lentil with the cereals in this pit may indicate multiple cropping during the Final Neolithic. The presence of fruit seeds, such as grape and fig, however, argues against the use of this pit for storage, and makes agricultural interpretations based upon these data more tenuous. The mixture of cereals and legumes, as well as a few weed seeds (Avena, Phalaris) and other material, suggest that this is a secondary deposit, due in part perhaps to crop cleaning prior to food preparation. The presence of such weed species as Lithospermum, Galium, and Phalaris, all of which flower in June, may provide evidence for a harvest in mid- or Water-sieved Deposits Figure 14.1. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing FN and FN–EH I water-sieved deposits FN PLANT REMAINS 809 TABLE 14.1. FINAL NEOLITHIC BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA Pit 27 Pit 31 Pit 31 Pit 31 Pit 31, Pot 4 SU 859 891 892 893 894 Collection method WS WS WS WS WS Vol. deposit (liters) 32 21 16 35 23 127 Vol. deposit sieved (liters) 8 21 5 9 5 48 % deposit sieved 25 100 31 26 22 38 Context Species Total Part CEREALS Triticum monococcum seed – 3 [1] 2 [2] [1] – 5 [4] Triticum dicoccum seed – 2 1 – – 3 Hordeum sp. seed [1] 1 [4] [1] [1] – 1 [7] Cereal indet. seed – 2 [14] – [1] – 2 [15] Vicia ervilia seed – – – 5 1 6 Lens sp. seed – – [1] – – [1] Ficus carica seed – 1 – – – 1 cf.Quercus sp. fruit – – – [1] – [1] Vicia sp. seed – 2 [5] – [2] [10] 2 [17] Large Lathyrus sativus seed – 1 [1] 1 – – 2 [1] Small Lathyrus sativus seed – 1 – – – 1 Avena sp. seed – 1 – – – 1 Phalaris sp. seed – 2 – – – 2 Lithospermum arvense seed – – – 1 – 1 Hordeum cf. murinum seed 1 – – – – 1 Cruciferae seed – 3 1 – – 4 Leguminosae seed – – – [8] – [8] Seed indet. seed – 2 [8] – [18] [4] 2 [30] Capsule fragment indet. fruit – – – [3] – [3] 1 [1] 21 [33] 5 [4] 6 [35] 1 [14] 34 [87] Total items nonwood 2 54 9 41 15 121 Items per liter sieved 0.25 2.57 1.8 4.56 3 2.52 9 227 – 197 1 434 LEGUMES FRUITS AND NUTS USEFUL/MEDICINAL WEEDS OF CEREALS OTHER WILD PLANTS INDETERMINATE Total whole seeds WOOD Indet. Key for Tables 14.1–14.9: SU = Stratigraphic Unit Collection methods: WS = water sieve; T = trench (i.e., retrieved by hand) Species counts: unbracketed numbers = whole seeds; bracketed numbers = fragments + = present but not counted 810 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY Einkorn 8% Other Ident. Seeds 33% Emmer 3% Barley 6% Cereals Indet. 15% Other Fruit/Nut 1% Lentil 1% Bitter Vetch 5% Grape 0% Fig 1% Other Legumes 27% Figure 14.2. FN Pit 31, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 116) late summer. As the seeds and capsules of these weedy taxa are indehiscent, their presence indicates deliberate collection, most likely as an admixture of harvested cereals. Clearly cereals and legumes were being grown and presumably eaten, but there is little else that can be said about this deposit or plant use during the Final Neolithic period at Tsoungiza in general. The one vessel that was sampled is a nearly complete bowl (5) that contained one seed of bitter vetch and fragments of legumes (Vicia sp.; see Fig. 14.51, below), and may have been used to hold these in a kitchen/cooking area during food preparation. Small ceramic scoops 3 and 4 (cf. 13), which may be parts of a single object, found in Pit 31 may also have been part of the food preparation equipment. Alternatively, the legumes may have fallen into the vessel after it was deposited in the pit. The Vicia fragments were not identifiable to species and it was not possible to determine if they were cultivars. The bitter vetch could have been a weed in a legume crop or a crop plant in its own right. In terms of comparative material, most of the Late and Final Neolithic sites that have yielded plant remains are found in northern Greece (Fig. 14.3), whereas Kephala on Kea and Franchthi Cave are the only southern sites. Legumes are present at nearly all of these sites, as well as emmer, einkorn, and barley. Bitter vetch is very common on all Late and Final Neolithic sites, as are lentils and peas. The ubiquity, abundance, and variety of species of legumes may support the hypothesis of increased legume production in the Late Neolithic at this time throughout Greece.4 For example, at Kephala a cache of 300 seeds of Lathyrus sativus may represent a separate crop, and at Franchthi Cave, the number and variety of legumes increases in the later Neolithic levels.5 This pattern of an increase in the diversity of legume species represented continues into the Early Helladic levels at Tsoungiza. EH I PLANT REMAINS Plant remains from EH I deposits were recovered from Pits 17, 55 and 48, and from Cistern 2 (Table 14.2, Fig. 14.4). The predominant species, einkorn and emmer wheat, barley, lentils, and bitter vetch, are the same as those found in Pit 31, dated to the Final Neolithic. 4. Renfrew 1972; Sarpaki 1992. 5. Kephala: J. Renfrew 1977; Franchthi Cave: Franchthi 7. EH I PLANT REMAINS 811 1–Tsoungiza; 2–Franchthi Cave; 3–Synoro; 4–Lerna; 5–Tiryns; 6–Pefkakia; 7–Tsani; 8–Sesklo; 9–Argissa; 10–Servia; 11–Kastanas; 12–Sitagroi (Photolivos); 13–Skoteini; 14–Zas Cave; 15–Debla; 16–Phaistos; 17–Myrtos Figure 14.3. FN–EH III sites mentioned in the text Pit 17 is unlined and has a preserved depth of 1.12 m with an estimated volume of 640 liters. This pit contained a mixture of crops, primarily emmer, einkorn, bitter vetch, and lentil, as well as fig and pistachio (see Fig. 14.5, below). This may be a mixed deposit of food waste such as floor or hearth sweepings. Of interest is the high concentration of mineralized gromwell and other Boraginaceae in this pit. As noted above, because these seeds are uncharred it is difficult to determine their antiquity. Since none of the Boraginaceae species represented are useful for their seeds, they may be caches of seeds from an insect or rodent burrow. Pit 48 is 1.29 m deep and unlined, with an estimated volume of 1,110–1,220 liters. Like the other pits, it is not associated with remains of a structure, and the characterization of this pit as an indoor or outdoor feature is not possible (see Fig. 3.1). Cereals and legumes dominate the samples, with a few possible weed seeds such as canary grass, and small seeded TABLE 14.2. EARLY HELLADIC I BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA Context Pit 17 Pit 17 Pit 17 Pit 17 SU 822 826 829 830 Collection method WS WS WS WS WS Vol. deposit (liters) 225 3 16 24 Vol. deposit sieved (liters) 128 3 4 % deposit sieved 57 100 Species Pit 55 Pit 55 Pit 55 Pit 55 1938 1939 WS WS WS WS, T WS WS WS WS WS 400 293 97 42 42 40 204 91 207 354 8 120 88 32 42 16 15 51 20 62 85 25 25 33 30 33 100 38 38 25 22 30 24 1935 1936 Pit 55 Pit 55 Pit 48 Pit 48 Pit 48 1940 1941 1961 1962 1964 Pit 48 1967 Part CEREALS Triticum monococcum seed 26 [2] – – – – – – – – – 4 [1] 1 7 [7] 18 [3] Triticum dicoccum seed 2 – – – – – 1 – – – – – Triticum dicoccum spikelet – – – – – – – – – – 4 Triticum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – [1] 3 [7] Triticum sp. spikelet – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – Triticum sp. glume base – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Hordeum sp. seed 3 [1] [1] – – – – 5 [23] 5 [13] – – 6 [4] [1] Cereal indet. seed [54] – – – [1] [2] 9 [14] [21] [4] – [2] – 3 [47] [49] Vicia ervilia seed 4 – – – – – 2 – – – – – 1 1 Vicia cf. ervilia seed 1 – – – – – – – – – – [1] – – Vicia faba seed – – – – – – [1] – – – [1] – – – Lens sp. seed 3 [8] – – – – – 4 – 1 – 12 [3] – [10] 1 Pisum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – 2 – 1 – cf. Pisum sp. seed – – – – – – 1 – 1 – – – – – Ficus carica seed 10 – – 1 [1] 5 1 – 1 – 5 1 Ficus carica fruit – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Rubus sp. seed – – – – – – 1 [2] 1 – – – – – – Pyrus type seed – – – – – – 5 [2] – – – – – – – Pistacia sp. seed 6 [3] – – – – – – – – – – – – 5 Vitis vinifera seed – – – – – – – – – – [5] – – – Olea europaea seed – – – – – – – – – – [2] [1] – – Vicia sp. seed 5 [8] – – – – – [2] – – – [4] – cf. Vicia sp. seed – – – – – – – 5 – – – – – – Lathyrus sativus seed 1 – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – Lathyrus sp. seed [1] – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – Medicago sp. seed – – – – – – – 7 [8] – – – – – – Hypericum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – [2] – cf. Malva sp. seed – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – Lolium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – [1] – – – Avena sp. seed [1] – – – – – – – – – – – – – Phalaris sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – cf. Plantago sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 6 7 – 2 [2] 3 [10] LEGUMES FRUITS AND NUTS 230 [70] 384 [70] USEFUL/MEDICINAL 1 [7] 10 [19] WEEDS OF CEREALS Key: See Table 14.1 TABLE 14.2 (CONT.) Pit 48 Pit 48 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 1968 1969 2100 WS T? WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS ? 345 ? 108 115 104 60 126 200 35 86 58 50 71 72 65 72 58 ? 3,663+ 69 ? 28 30 24 18 34 44 8 24 22 14 17 18 15 18 14 ? 1,071+ 20 ? 26 26 23 30 27 22 23 28 38 28 24 25 23 25 24 ? 29 – 6 [1] – [1] 2 [1] – – – – – – – – [1] – 143 [36] 3 [2] 2 [1] – – – 1 – – – – – 1 2 2 – 56 [14] 2101 2102 2103 2104 2105 2107 2109 2111 2113 2114 2115 2116 2117 2118 2119 Total 16 – 63 [19] 20 [6] – 9 [5] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 4 2 [8] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – [1] 5 [17] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 12 [13] – 10 [14] – – – – 2 [2] – 3 [1] 3 – – – 1 – – – 55 [85] [65] – [173] [20] [9] – – [4] – [3] [2] [3] – – – – 1 – 13 [473] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 8 3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 4 [1] 1 – 1 – – – – [3] – [1] – – – – – – – – 2 [6] 6 – 13 1 1 – – 1 – – [1] – – – – – – – 43 [22] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 3 2 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 4 24 – 99 103 40 6 33 151 5 – 90 3 2 4 – – – – 1,198 [141] – – – – – – – [1] – – [2] – – – – – – – [3] – – – – 1 – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – 4 [2] – – – – – – – 1 – 1 – – – – – – – – 7 [2] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 11 [3] – – 1 min? – 2 – – – 8 – – – 1 – – – – – 12 [5] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – [3] 14 [9] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – [1] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 30 [49] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 5 [1] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 – – 2 – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 [1] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 10 [8] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – [2] – – [8] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – [9] [1] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – [1] – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 [1] 814 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.2 (CONT.) Pit 17 Pit 17 Pit 17 Pit 17 Pit 55 Pit 55 Part SU 822 SU 826 SU 829 SU 830 SU 1938 SU 1939 cf. Najas seed – – – – – – – 1 [5] – – – – – – cf. Schoenus sp. seed – – – – – – – 2 1 – – – – – cf. Carex sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Rumex sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Polygonum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Chenopodium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – Adonis sp. seed – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – Fumaria sp. seed – – – – – – 4 6 – – – – – – cf. Alchemilla sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Astragalus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – 4 Astragalus/Trigonella sp. seed – – – – – – – [7] – – – – – – Astragalus/Trifolium sp. seed – – – – – – 3 – 1 – – – – – Galium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – Lithospermum arvense seed 237 – – 5 – – – – – – – – – – Anchusa sp. seed 24 – 1 – – – – – – – – – 1 – Echium sp. seed 73 – – 2 – – – – – – 1? – – – cf. Lapsana sp. seed – – – – – – – 3 – – – – – – Cruciferae seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Leguminosae seed [1] – – – – – [7] – 1 [1] [20] – [36] [2] Labiatae seed – – – – – – – – 2 – – – – – Rosaceae indet. seed – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – Gramineae indet. culm – – – – – – – – – – 2 – – – Small Gramineae indet. seed – – – – – – 2 – – – – – – – Species indet. Type 1 seed – – – – – – 2 – – – – – – – Species indet. seed – – [1] – – – 10 [1] – [15] – 1 – 4 [66] [12] Nonwood carbon indet. mass [1] – – – [15] [9] [52] [76] [9] – [296] – [45] – Total whole seeds 395 – 1 8 1 5 282 416 8 0 34 1 37 50 Total items nonwood 475 1 2 8 18 16 456 616 36 1 373 5 259 152 Items per liter sieved 3.7 0.33 0.5 1 0.15 0.18 14.25 14.67 2.25 0.07 7.3 0.25 4.18 1.8 Pinus sp. – – – – – – – – 5 – – – – – Quercus pubescens type – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Olea europaea – – – – – – 2 – – – – – – – Indet. – 48 – 1 31 24 76 116 123 73 41 3 189 33 – 48 – 1 31 24 78 116 128 73 41 3 189 33 Species Pit 55 Pit 55 SU SU 1935 1936 Pit 55 Pit 55 Pit 48 Pit 48 Pit 48 SU SU SU SU SU 1940 1941 1961 1962 1964 Pit 48 SU 1967 WATER PLANTS OTHER WILD PLANTS INDETERMINATE WOOD Total wood fragments EH I PLANT REMAINS 815 TABLE 14.2 (CONT.) Pit 48 Pit 48 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 Cis 2 SU 1968 SU 1969 SU 2100 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 [5] – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – 3 – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 – – – – – – – – – 2 – – – – – – – – 3 – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 11 – – 1 – 3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 4 5 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 9 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – [7] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 4 – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – 243 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 26 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 76 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 3 – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 9 [26] – [2] – – – – [6] – [5] [1] – – – – – – – 10 [107] 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 [6] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 [6] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 [1] – [3] 6 [1] 2 3 1 5 – – [13] 5 2 – – – – 39 [113] [71] – [12] – – – – 1 – [1] – – – – – – – – 1 [587] 115 ? 206 113 57 8 38 160 19 6 93 3 8 6 2 2 3 0 2,076 [1,709] 321 ? 442 136 69 8 39 177 19 17 99 19 8 6 2 2 4 1 3,785 4.65 ? 15.8 4.5 2.9 0.44 1.15 4.02 2.38 0.71 4.5 1.36 0.47 0.33 0.13 0.11 0.29 ? 3.53 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 5 – 2 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 262 – + – + – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – 1,021 262 2 + 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,030 SU SU SU SU SU SU SU SU SU SU SU SU SU SU SU 2101 2102 2103 2104 2105 2107 2109 2111 2113 2114 2115 2116 2117 2118 2119 Total 816 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY Water-sieved Deposits Figure 14.4. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH I water-sieved deposits legumes, but relatively little in the way of fruit, nuts, or other remains (Fig. 14.6). The density of wheat and barley remains may indicate the use of this pit for storage. If so, the presence of wheat, barley, and pulses together would suggest multiple cropping, with the barley and wheat perhaps grown together as maslin.6 Further, the weed species Echium, Erodium, Lolium, and Lithospermum arvense, all indehiscent, may suggest a late-spring or early-summer harvest. The crop species represented are all suitable for growth in limestone soils such as those near Tsoungiza. The climate of the region would allow a winter crop with a late-spring or early-summer harvest. The presence of grape and fig, both ripening in late summer to fall, suggests exploitation of wild resources as well during these seasons. As in Pit 31, however, the presence of these fruits may also argue against the interpretation of Pit 48 as a storage facility, and would 6. Hansen 1988; Jones and Halstead 1995. EH I PLANT REMAINS Einkorn 6% Emmer 0% Barley 1% 817 Cereals Indet. 11% Lentil 2% Bitter Vetch 1% Other Legumes 3% Fig 2% Grape 0% Other Ident. Seeds* 74% Other Fruit/Nut 2% Other Legumes * Boraginaceae make up 99.7% of these (334/335). Figure 14.5. EH I Pit 17, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 474) support its function as a refuse pit. The plant material in Pit 48 may be the remains of food burned while cooking and/or dropped into the hearth. Wood charcoal, all unidentifiable, was also common in this pit and also argues against its use for storage. Pit 48 may be a refuse context with the remains of hearth sweepings disposed of in it. Pit 55 has a preserved depth of 0.93 m and a clay lining, and therefore originally may have been a storage pit. It is not associated with any remains of a structure so we cannot determine if it was originally inside or outside a building. The estimated preserved volume of the pit is Other Ident. Seeds 18% Einkorn 7% Emmer 5% Other Fruit/Nut 1% Barley 7% Grape 1% Fig 4% Cereals Indet. 23% Other Legumes 26% Bitter Vetch 1% Lentil 6% Figure 14.6. EH I Pit 48, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 469) 818 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY Other Ident. Seeds 7% Other Fruit/Nut 1% Einkorn 0% Grape 0% Emmer 0% Barley 5% Cereals Indet. 5% Lentil 1% Bitter Vetch 0% Other Legumes 4% Fig 77% Figure 14.7. EH I Pit 55, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 980) 420–490 liters. The bulk of the plant remains come from two samples (SUs 1938, 1939), the location of which suggests that most of the carbonized material comes from approximately the central 0.21 m of the pit’s depth and may represent a single episode of deposition. Fig seeds predominate in Pit 55, making up 77% of the seed remains (Fig. 14.7). In addition, seeds of raspberry and pear are also present. These are the types of seeds one might expect from a latrine deposit,7 and one explanation for the origin of the plant remains in Pit 55 might be human waste that was later burned. Several small-seeded legumes (Astragalus/ Trigonella/Trifolium) may have been weeds in a legume crop that were collected along with the lentils or bitter vetch. Among the cereals, there are a few grains of barley and others that are unidentified, but no identifiable wheat. Weeds present in the pit, including Adonis, Hypericum, Lapsana, Medicago, Potentilla, and Schoenus, are species that ripen in late spring and suggest a late-spring harvest. The predominance of barley and the paucity of pulse crops may indicate single cropping of barley. The edaphic requirements of all of the weed species are similar to those of barley, and it is possible that these taxa were growing in a field of this cereal. In addition to carbonized plant remains, this pit contained several mineralized seeds, including fig (3), Potentilla (2), and Hypericum (1). Use of the pit as a latrine may explain the mineralized condition of some seeds, but the low frequency of mineralized seeds argues against this interpretation. Pit 55 also yielded many fragments of “carbon indet.” that may be remains of some type of parenchymatous tissue from a root or tuber. They do not appear to be fragments of pear fruit, as the characteristic schlerenchyma cells are not present, nor are they fig as they contain no seeds that are invariably present in the fruit fragments of this species. Bogrush seeds are also present in this deposit and it is possible that the carbon indet. fragments are pieces of tuber from this plant. These grow primarily in standing or slow-moving water and would have been present along the river or in marshy areas of the valley. The stems of bogrush might have been collected for use as matting or for some other purpose. If the 7. Carruthers 1991; Wiethold 1992. EH I PLANT REMAINS Other Ident. Seeds 8% Einkorn 1% Other Fruit/Nut 1% Emmer 2% 819 Barley 2% Cereals Indet. 6% Lentil 1% Bitter Vetch 0% Grape 2% Other Legumes 3% Fig 74% Figure 14.8. EH I Cistern 2, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 532) rushes were harvested by simply pulling them up from the soft mud, then the tubers would have been collected as well. The seeds also could have been brought to the site in this way. The tubers of various species of rush are edible8 and it is possible that these fragments represent carbonized food remains, too. Seeds identified as naiad (Najas major), another wetland species, were also recovered from Pit 55. The fruits of this plant are inedible, as are most other parts of the plant. Usher notes that the leaves of Najas major are eaten as a salad in Hawaii,9 but such a use would not necessarily have resulted in the fruit and seeds being brought to the site. As neither the bogrush nor naiad would have been harvested with a cereal or legume crop, their presence in the pit indicates that, at least in its final use, this pit probably contained a mixed deposit of refuse from several sources rather than debris from crop processing activities or the storage of a crop. Compared to the other EH I contexts, Cistern 2 (see Fig. 3.6) produced relatively little plant material relative to the amount of sediment water-sieved (see Figs. 14.9–14.11, below). The deposits of this feature are dominated by fig seeds (Fig. 14.8): constituting 74% of the seed remains, with other fruit seeds such as raspberry (Rubus sp.), pear, and grape also present. As noted above in the discussion of Pit 55, these are the types of plant remains one might expect to find in a latrine deposit, and some of the material is mineralized as is common in a latrine deposit.10 In addition, the sediment from this context appeared to be comminuted plant material. No identifiable remains were retrieved from the comminuted material, however. Another interesting difference between Cistern 2 and the pit deposits is the lack of nonedible plants in the cistern, except for one Carex and two Adonis seeds. This is difficult to explain if Cistern 2 was used as a refuse dump, unless only selected refuse was deposited in it. Therefore, it seems most likely that the cistern was used at some point for deposition of human waste rather than general household refuse. 8. Hillman 1989; Moore, Hillman, and Legge 2000. 9. Usher 1974, p. 405. 10. Green 1979; Carruthers 1991. PALAEOETHNOBOTANY 4.5 4.5 44 3.5 3.5 33 2.5 2.5 22 1.5 1.5 11 0.5 0.5 00 No. Items/L No. Items/L 820 Pit 17 17 Pit Pit 55 55 Pit Pit 48 Pit 48 Cistern 22 Cistern 4 3.5 No. Items/L 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Pit 17 Pit 55 Pit 48 Cistern 2 Figure 14.9. EH I density of nonwood items (top), and of nonwood items excluding fig (bottom), by context With the exception of fig seeds, there are relatively few remains overall in any of the EH I deposits. Figure 14.9 (top) illustrates the density of remains as a ratio of the number of items (whole and fragmentary seeds and other nonwood plant parts) per liter of sediment water-sieved for each context. The three pits have a higher density of remains than the cistern and, to some extent, this is due to the large number of fig seeds. Fig seeds tend to be overrepresented because of the high quantity present per fig fruit (1,300 or more) and the high silica content of the seed coats, which gives them a better chance of being preserved. Figure 14.9 (bottom) is a comparison of density among the different contexts with fig removed from the sum. This indicates that the majority of nonwood items in Pit 55 were fig seeds and that Pits 17 and 48 had a greater density of other plant remains than did Pit 55. The various EH I contexts display quite different densities of emmer, einkorn, barley, bitter vetch, and lentil (Fig. 14.10), although the overall density of these contexts is very low, less than two seeds per 10 liters of sediment. Einkorn wheat occurs in Pits 17 and 48, is rare in Cistern 2 and absent from Pit 55. There is a greater density of emmer wheat and barley in Pit 48 than in other contexts, while bitter vetch and lentils are less well represented in Pit 48 than in other pits. It is interesting that the plant remains in Cistern 2, a context in which one might expect good preservation of refuse deposits, are less dense than in the other contexts. Perhaps this feature was used only briefly for waste disposal. A positive correlation between the quantity of material recovered and the quantity of sediment water-sieved is indicated by a comparison of the volume of sediment water-sieved, expressed as a percentage of all EH I sediment water-sieved, and the quantity of nonwood items recovered from each context expressed as a percentage of all EH I nonwood items (Fig. 14.11). In Cistern 2, however, little plant material was recovered relative to the amount EH 1–II PLANT REMAINS 821 2.5 Seeds per 10 L 2 Einkorn Einkorn 1.5 Emmer Emmer Barley Barley 1 Bitter Vetch Bitter vetch 0.5 Lentil Lentil 0 Pit 17 Pit 55 Pit 48 Cistern 2 Figure 14.10. EH I density of species per 10 liters of sediment water-sieved, by context Percentage 40 40 Percent of Total Sediment Water-sieved (n = 1,019 L) 35 35 Watersieved (n=1019L) Percent of Wood Items Recoveredl (n=3274) 25 25 20 20 Percent of Total Nonwood Items Recovered (n = 3,274) 15 15 Percentage Percentage Percent 30 30 10 10 Percent of Sediment Watersieved (n=1019L) Context 5 5 0 0 Pit 17 Pit 17 Pit 55 Pit 55 Context Pit 48 Cistern 2 Pit 48 Cistern 2 Figure 14.11. EH I comparison of percentage water-sieved and percentage of items recovered, by context Context of water-sieving done, despite the probability that it was used for human waste and the wet, acidic preservation conditions would have been favorable. This further indicates that the paucity of plant remains in Cistern 2 reflects the actual presence or absence of botanical material rather than being an artifact of the sampling strategy. Comparative material We are aware of no reports of plant remains from any other EH I site in Greece. EH I–II PLANT REMAINS Pit 32 contained mixed EH I–II deposits; these were water-sieved and yielded wheat, barley, numerous unidentifiable cereal grains, along with lentils and other legumes, fig seeds, and a few other wild seeds (Table 14.3, Figs. 14.12, 14.13). This feature is unlined, 0.88 m in preserved depth, and approximately 420–460 liters in volume. It is not associated with any architecture or floor surface, and Pullen (pp. 55–56, above) notes that “Pit 32 does seem to be transitional, with its combinations of fabrics, surface treatments, and shapes of both EH I and EH II.” SU 2014 in Pit 32 has a significantly greater density of material than the other units in this pit, but, as with many other samples at Tsoungiza, this figure is inflated by the overrepresentation of fig seeds. 822 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.3. EARLY HELLADIC I–II BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA Context Pit 32 Pit 32 Pit 32 Pit 32 Pit 32 SU 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Collection method WS WS WS WS WS Vol. deposit (liters) 76 56 57 74 44 307 Vol. deposit sieved (liters) 22 10 12 20 10 74 % deposit seived 29 18 21 27 23 24 Species Total Part CEREALS Triticum monococcum seed – – 2 1 – 3 Triticum dicoccum seed 1 [5] 1 – – – 2 [5] Triticum sp. seed – [13] 4 [16] [5] – 4 [34] Hordeum sp. seed 7 2 [3] 5 [23] [14] – 14 [40] Cereal indet. seed [8] – [5] [46] [2] [61] cf. Cicer sp. seed 1 – – – – 1 Vicia ervilia seed – – 2 – – 2 Lens sp. seed – 2 1 [3] – 3 [3] Ficus carica seed 12 1 26 1 1 41 Fruit indet. fruit [1] – – – – [1] Vicia sp. seed 2 [3] – 5 [1] – 7 [4] Lathyrus sp. seed 1 – – – – 1 Medicago sp. seed – – – 1 – 1 seed – 1 – – – 1 seed – 1 1 – – 2 Cruciferae seed [1] – – 1 – 1 [1] Leguminosae seed [1] – – – – [1] Seed seed [15] – 2 – – 2 [15] Total whole seeds 24 8 48 4 1 85 [165] Total items nonwood 58 24 92 73 3 250 Items per liter sieved 2.64 2.4 7.67 3.65 0.3 3.38 11 – 40 – – 51 LEGUMES FRUITS AND NUTS USEFUL/MEDICINAL WEEDS OF CEREALS cf. Bromus sp. OTHER WILD PLANTS Anchusa sp. INDETERMINATE WOOD Indet. Key: See Table 14.1 The mixed nature of the ceramics, the presence of items such as a bronze dagger, and the mixture of cereals, legumes, and a few wild seeds suggest that this pit contained a generalized rubbish deposit. EH II PLANT REMAINS 823 Water-sieved Deposits Figure 14.12. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH I–II water-sieved deposits EH II PLANT REMAINS The Early Helladic II deposits have been subdivided into four phases on the basis of the ceramic assemblages. The EH II plant remains are presented in Tables 14.4a–d according to these subdivisions. A fifth group of EH II samples for which the ceramics did not allow assignment to a subphase are discussed as EH II phase unknown (Table 14.4e). Unlike the EH I samples, many EH II samples lack documentation of the volumes of sediment excavated and water-sieved, so that it is not possible to calculate the density of remains in these contexts. EH II Initial Only one liter of sediment was water-sieved from an EH II Initial context. This sample, from Fill 12, produced only a few legumes. Fill 12 is in the Southeast Sector of EU 5 immediately es m gu Le er th O 824 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY Other Fruit/Nut 0% Grape 0% Other Ident. Seeds 9% Einkorn 1% Emmer 3% Barley 22% Fig 16% Other Legumes 6% Bitter Vetch 1% Lentil 2% Cereals Indet. 40% Figure 14.13. EH I–II Pit 32, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 249) above Pits 61 and 62, also of EH II Initial date (Table 14.4a, Fig. 14.14), and Pit 65, which is dated to EH I. The fill is probably associated with Pits 61 and 62, as well as Fill 8 and Wall 38 to the west. Fill 12 contained some later EH II material so its date is not certain. Fill 8 was not water-sieved, although the excavator collected several fragments of fig. Associated with these deposits may be several possible postholes forming a zigzag line southeast of Wall 39. No botanical remains that might shed light on these features were recovered, however. EH II Developed Phase 1 Six contexts (Pits 35, 36, 56, Surfaces 1 and 2, and Fill 10/1) dated to EH II Developed Phase 1 were sampled and a total of 346 liters of sediment were water-sieved (Fig. 14.15). Figure 14.16 is a plot of the volume of sediment water-sieved for each context, expressed as a percentage of all EH II Developed Phase 1 sediment water-sieved, and the number of nonwood items recovered from each context expressed as a percentage of all items from these contexts. These data indicate distributional variability in the density of remains in the different contexts that may be related to the use of the context and/or the quality of the preservation of material. Of interest here is the relatively small percentage of sediment water-sieved from Surface 1 (44 liters, 13%) and the high percentage of items recovered (n = 475, 62%). In contrast, 49% (167 liters) of the water-sieved sediment came from Pit 56 while this produced only 7% (n = 52) of the plant remains from this subphase. The other contexts show closer relationships between the percentage of sediment water-sieved and the percentage of plant items recovered. Surface 1 covered much of the southeastern portion of EU 5, but only two samples were water-sieved. Surface 1 has been interpreted as a courtyard to the south and east of House A, and so the botanical remains were not derived from a storage context, interior floor surface, hearth, or other interior feature. Of the Surface 1 deposits, SU 1944 contained the most plant remains (Fig. 14.17), as well as most of the plant material from EH II Developed Phase 1 overall. Cereals predominate in the Surface 1 deposits, and many legumes are also present (Fig. 14.18). The concentration of cereal and legume seeds, with no chaff and only three “weed” seeds, suggests that the deposit represents cooking waste. EH II PLANT REMAINS 825 TABLE 14.4A. EARLY HELLADIC II INITIAL BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA Context Fill 8 Fill 12 Fill 12 SU 1959 884 886 T WS T Collection method Vol. deposit (liters) Species 1 Total – Vol. deposit sieved (liters) 0 1 0 1 % deposit seived – 100 – – Part CEREALS Triticum monococcum seed – – – 0 Triticum monococcum spikelet fork – – – 0 Triticum dicoccum seed – – – 0 Triticum dicoccum spikelet fork – – – 0 Triticum sp. seed – – – 0 Triticum sp. glume base – – – 0 Triticum sp. rachis – – – 0 Hordeum sp. seed – – – 0 Hordeum sp. rachis – – – 0 Cereal indet. seed – – – 0 Cereal indet. awn – – – 0 Cereal indet. rachis – – – 0 Cicer arietinum seed – – – 0 Vicia ervilia seed – 2 – 2 Vicia faba seed – – – 0 Lens sp. seed – – – 0 Pisum sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Pisum sp. seed – – – 0 Ficus carica seed – – – 0 Ficus carica fruit [12] – – [12] Rubus sp. seed – – – 0 Prunus dulcis seed – – – 0 Pyrus type seed – – – 0 Pyrus type fruit – – – 0 Vitis vinifera seed – – – 0 Vitis vinifera pedicel – – – 0 Olea europaea pit – – – 0 fruit – – – 0 seed – – – 0 LEGUMES FRUITS AND NUTS Fruit indet. FIBER PLANTS cf. Linum sp. Key: See Table 14.1 826 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.4A (CONT.) Species Part SU 1959 SU 884 SU 886 Total Vicia sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Lathyrus sp. seed – [2] – [2] cf. Lathyrus sativus seed – – – 0 Medicago lupulina type seed – – – 0 Medicago hispida type seed – – – 0 Medicago cf. minima seed – – – 0 Medicago sp. seed – – – 0 Medicago type 2 seed – – – 0 cf. Medicago sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Hypericum sp. seed – – – 0 Malva sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Malva sp. seed – – – 0 Lolium sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Bromus sp. seed – – – 0 Avena sp. seed – – – 0 Phalaris sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Najus sp. seed – – – 0 Scirpus sp. seed – – – 0 Carex sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Carex sp. seed – – – 0 Polygonum sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Beta sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Spergula sp. seed – – – 0 Chenopodium sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Adonis sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Alchemilla sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Trifolium sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Trifolium/Astragalus seed – – – 0 cf. Trigonella/Trifolium sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Cucumis sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Galium sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Echium sp. seed – – – 0 Anchusa sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Myosotis sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Galeopsis sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Lamium sp. seed – – – 0 USEFUL/MEDICINAL WEEDS OF CEREALS WATER PLANTS OTHER WILD PLANTS EH II PLANT REMAINS 827 TABLE 14.4A (CONT.) Species Part SU 1959 SU 884 SU 886 Total cf. Melissa sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Veronica sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Cirsium sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Ruppia sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Scorpiurus sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Solanum sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Filago sp. seed – – – 0 cf. Arum sp. seed – – – 0 Polygonaceae seed – – – 0 Cruciferae seed – – – 0 Leguminosae seed – [5] – [5] Leguminosae small seed – – – 0 Boraginaceae seed – – – 0 Compositae seed – – – 0 Small Gramineae indet. seed – – – 0 Gramineae indet. culm – – – 0 Gramineae indet. culm node – – – 0 Gramineae indet. aerial root – – – 0 Species indet. seed – – – 0 Species indet. Type 2 seed – – – 0 Species indet. Type 3 seed – – – 0 Species indet. Type 4 seed – – – 0 Species indet. Type 5 seed – – – 0 Monocotyledonae seed – – – 0 unknown – – – 0 shell – – – 0 0 [12] 2 [7] 0 2 [19] Total items nonwood 12 9 0 21 Items per liter sieved – 9 – 9 Pinus sp. – – – 0 Quercus pubescens type – – – 0 cf. Platanus sp. – – – 0 cf. Pyrus sp. – – – 0 Olea europaea – – 2? 2? Indet. – – – 0 0 0 2? 2? INDETERMINATE Carbon indet. Nutshell Total whole seeds WOOD Total wood fragments 828 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.4B. EARLY HELLADIC II DEVELOPED PHASE 1 BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA Context Floor 6 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 SU Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 36 Pot 848 1911 1912 1913 1914 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1922 1984 Collection method T WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS Vol. deposit (liters) 0 35 29 39 33+ 12 46 46 38 47 22 40 34 Vol. deposit sieved (liters) 0 7 6 7 6+ 12 10 16 10 9 4 8 12 % deposit sieved 0 20 21 18 18+ 100 22 35 26 19 18 20 35 Species Part CEREALS Triticum monococcum seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Triticum monococcum spikelet fork – – – – – – – – – – – – – Triticum dicoccum seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Triticum dicoccum spikelet fork – – – – – – – – – – – – – Triticum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Triticum sp. glume base – – – – – – – – – – – – – Triticum sp. rachis – – – – – – – – – – – – – Hordeum sp. seed – – [1] 2 – – – [2] 1? – – – – Hordeum sp. rachis – – – – – – – – – – – – – Cereal indet. seed – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – Cereal indet. awn – – – – – – – – – – – – – Cereal indet. rachis – – – – – – – – – – – – – Cicer arietinum seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Vicia ervilia seed – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – Vicia faba seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Lens sp. seed – – – – [1] – – 1 – [1] – – – Pisum sp. seed – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – cf. Pisum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Ficus carica seed – 9 – 3 21 2 5 3 3 9 Ficus carica fruit – – – – – – – – – – – – – Rubus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Prunus dulcis seed – – – – – – [1] – – – – – – Pyrus type seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Pyrus type fruit – – – – – – – – – – – – – Vitis vinifera seed – – – 1 – – – – – – – – 1 Vitis vinifera pedicel – – – – – – – – – – – – – Olea europaea pit – – – – – – – – – – – – – fruit – – – – – – – – – – – – – seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – LEGUMES FRUITS AND NUTS Fruit indet. 19 [2] 53 [1] FIBER PLANTS cf. Linum sp. Key: See Table 14.1 EH II PLANT REMAINS 829 TABLE 14.4B (CONT.) Fill Fill 25 10/1 Pit 56 Sur Pit 56 Pit 56 Pit 56 Pot 1 Sur 1 1942 1945 1948 1948 882 1944 750 864 865 873 876 1901 1904 1905 1952 817 818 WS WS WS WS WS WS T T T T T T T WS T WS T 180 267 32 1 10 34 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 90 0 54 80 32 1 10 34 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 28 0 30 30 100 100 100 100 – – – – – – – 100 – 31 – – [1] 1 – – 72 [27] – – – – – – – – – 4 [1] – 77 [29] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – 1 – – – 3 [1] – – – – – – – – – 3 [1] – 7 [2] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 [1] – – – [2?] 18 [65] – – – – – – – [2?] – 4 [8] – 25 [81] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – [2] – – 7 [192] – – – – – – – – – 1 [9] – 9 [203] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – 12 [5] – 15 [7] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 1 – 1 – – – – – – – – – – 1 – 5 – 135 [3] – – – – – – – [1] – – – – – – – – – 0 [1] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 [1] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – 3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Total 830 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.4B (CONT.) Floor 6 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 36 Pot Part SU 848 SU 1911 SU 1912 SU 1913 SU 1914 SU 1914 SU 1915 SU 1916 SU 1917 SU 1918 SU 1919 SU 1922 SU 1984 Vicia sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Lathyrus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Lathyrus sativus seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Medicago lupulina type seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Medicago hispida type seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Medicago cf. minima seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Medicago sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Medicago type 2 seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Medicago sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Hypericum sp. seed – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – Malva sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Malva sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Lolium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Bromus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Avena sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Phalaris sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Najus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Scirpus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Carex sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Carex sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Polygonum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Beta sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Spergula sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Chenopodium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Adonis sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Alchemilla sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Trifolium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Trifolium/Astragalus seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Trigonella/Trifolium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Cucumis sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Galium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Echium sp. seed – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – Anchusa sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Myosotis sp. seed – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Galeopsis sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Species USEFUL/MEDICINAL WEEDS OF CEREALS WATER PLANTS OTHER WILD PLANTS EH II PLANT REMAINS 831 TABLE 14.4B (CONT.) Fill Fill 25 10/1 Pit 56 Sur 1 Pit 56 Pit 56 Pit 56 Pot Sur 1 SU 1942 SU 1945 SU 1948 SU 1948 SU 882 SU 1944 SU 750 SU 864 SU 865 SU 873 SU 876 SU 1901 SU 1904 SU 1905 SU 1952 SU 817 SU 818 5? – – – – 24 [27] – – – – – – – – – – – 29 [27] – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – 2 [1] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 3 [1] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – 2? – – – – – – – – – 1? – 3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – 3 2 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 5 – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – 2 – 4 – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – 1 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Total 832 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.4B (CONT.) Floor 6 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 35 Pit 36 Pot Part SU 848 SU 1911 SU 1912 SU 1913 SU 1914 SU 1914 SU 1915 SU 1916 SU 1917 SU 1918 SU 1919 SU 1922 SU 1984 cf. Lamium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Melissa sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Veronica sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Cirsium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Ruppia sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Scorpiurus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Solanum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Filago sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Arum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Polygonaceae seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Cruciferae seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Leguminosae seed – – – – [1] – – – – – 3 [1] – Leguminosae small seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Boraginaceae seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Compositae seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Small Gramineae indet. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Gramineae indet. culm – – – – – – – – – – – – – Gramineae indet. culm node – – – – – – – – – – – – – Gramineae indet. aerial root – – – – – – – – – – – – – Species indet. seed – – – – 10 – 1 1 – – – – 1 Species indet. Type 2 seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Species indet. Type 3 seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Species indet. Type 4 seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Species indet. Type 5 seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – Monocotyledonae seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – unknown – – – – – – [2] – – – [1] [8] [1] shell – – – – – – [4] – – – – – – Total whole seeds 0 10 0 [1] 8 32 [2] 2 6 3 [1] 3 [1] Total items nonwood 0 10 [1] 8 34 2 29 59 6 4 4 13 12 Items per liter sieved – 1.4 0.2 1.1 5.7 0.2 2.9 3.7 0.6 0.4 1 1.6 1 Pinus sp. 4 – – – – – – 1 – – – 1 – Quercus pubescens type – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – cf. Platanus sp. – – – – – – – – – – – – – cf. Pyrus sp. – – – – – – – – – – – – – Olea europaea – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – Indet. 4 – 2 12 – 4 61 214 94 206 8 30 17 8 0 2 12 0 4 61 217 94 206 8 31 17 Species INDETERMINATE Carbon indet. Nutshell 20 [9] 56 [3] 4 [9] 11 [1] WOOD Total wood fragments EH II PLANT REMAINS 833 TABLE 14.4B (CONT.) Fill Fill 25 10/1 Pit 56 Pit 56 Pit 56 Pit 56 Sur 1 Pot Sur 1 SU 1942 SU 1945 SU 1948 SU 1948 SU 882 SU 1944 SU 750 SU 864 SU 865 SU 873 SU 876 SU 1901 SU 1904 SU 1905 SU 1952 SU 817 SU 818 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – [1] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – [1] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 [1] [1] [2] – – [24] – – – – – – – – – 3 – 6 [30] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – [2] 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – 3 [9] – 17 [11] – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 [13] – [6] [3] – [4] – – – – – – – [10] – – – [48] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – [4] 0 0 [1] 0 0 0 0 0 2 [12] 0 41 [33] 0 349 [449] 798 7 [15] 1 [4] 8 [12] 2 [3] 2 [2?] 131 [340] Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 Sur 2 22 5 20 5 4 471 0 [1] 0 0 0 0 0 14 0 74 0 0.4 0.06 0.6 5 0.4 13.9 – – – – – 0 0 1.75 0 2.6 – – – – – – – 3 – – – 12 – 5 – 1 2 – – – – – – – – 3 – 2 – 5 – – 1 9 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 – – – – – – – – – 4 – 7 1 – – 4 2 – + 3 280 11 9 4 – 45 – 44 – – 131 – 116 1 + 3 280 11 9 4 3 48 4 46 19 6 131 6 132 1 5 Total TABLE 14.4C. EARLY HELLADIC II DEVELOPED PHASES 2 AND 3 BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA SUBPHASE DEVELOPED PHASE 2 Context SU Species DEVELOPED PHASE 3 Burnt Room Burnt Room Burnt Room Floor 10 Burnt Room Floor 10 Burnt Room Floor 11 Fill 28 Fill 13 Fill 21 Fill 24 Pit 21 Sur 2 Fill 14 746 748 749* 759 753* 758 784 777 745 812 750 765 T T T WS T WS – – 4 – 33 Collection method T T WS WS WS, T WS, T Vol. deposit (liters) 0 0 1,450 100 1,174+ 100 Vol. sieved (liters) 0 0 369 10 272+ 20 0 0 0 4 0 33 % deposit sieved 0 0 25 10 23 20 – – – 100 – 100 Total Total Part CEREALS Triticum monococcum seed – – [2] – – – – – – 0 [2] – – [2] 0 [2] Triticum monococcum spikelet fork – – – – – – – – – 0 – – 1 1 Triticum dicoccum seed – – 2 – – – – – – 2 – – [2] 0 [2] Triticum dicoccum spikelet fork – – 2 – – – – – – 2 – – – 0 Triticum sp. seed – – 1 [3] – [1] – – – – 1 [4] – – – 0 Triticum sp. glume base – – 1 – 1 – – – – 2 – – – 0 Triticum sp. rachis – – 1 – – – – – – 1 – – – 0 Hordeum sp. seed [1] – 11 [11] – 4 [7] – – – – 15 [19] – – [3] [3] Hordeum sp. rachis – – – – – – – – – 0 – – 1 1 Cereal indet. seed 2 – 27 [22] – 6 [22] – – – – 35 [44] – – [7] [7] Cereal indet. awn – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 Cereal indet. rachis – – 1 – – – – – – 1 – – – 0 Cicer arietinum seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – [2] [2] Vicia ervilia seed – – – – 2 – – – – 2 – – – 0 Vicia faba seed – – – – [1] – – – – [1] – – 1 1 Lens sp. seed – – 4 – 6 [7] – – – – 10 [7] – – 27 [10] 27 [10] Pisum sp. seed – – 1 – [1] – – – – 1 [1] [1] – – [1] cf. Pisum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 Ficus carica seed 4 – 124 [34] – 302 – – – – 430 [34] – – 12 12 Ficus carica fruit 1? – [1] – – – – – – 1 [1] – – – 0 LEGUMES FRUITS AND NUTS Key: See Table 14.1 *See Square Meter Unit breakdown in Tables 14.5 and 14.6. TABLE 14.4C (CONT.) SUBPHASE DEVELOPED PHASE 2 DEVELOPED PHASE 3 Burnt Room Burnt Room Burnt Room Floor 10 Burnt Room Floor 10 Burnt Room Floor 11 Fill 28 Fill 13 Fill 21 Fill 24 Pit 21 Sur 2 Fill 14 Part SU 746 SU 748 SU 749* SU 759 SU 753* SU 758 SU 784 SU 777 SU 745 Total SU 812 SU 750 SU 765 Total Rubus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 Prunus dulcis seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 Pyrus type seed – – – – 1 – – – – 1 – – – 0 Pyrus type fruit – – – – – – – – 2 2 – 1? – 1 Vitis vinifera seed – – 18 [24] – 2 [39] – – – – 20 [63] – [1] [1] [2] Vitis vinifera pedicel – – 3 – – – – – – 3 – 2 – 2 Olea europaea pit – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 Fruit indet. fruit – – 6 – – – – [1] – 6 [1] – – [3] [3] seed – – [1] – – – – – – 0 [1] – – – 0 Vicia sp. seed – – 3 [1] – 1 [1] – – – – 4 [1] – – – 0 cf. Lathyrus sp. seed – – – – [2] – – – – 0 [2] – – – 0 cf. Lathyrus sativus seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 Medicago lupulina type seed – – 15 – – – – – – 15 – – – 0 Medicago hispida type seed – – 12 – – – – – – 12 – – – 0 Medicago cf. minima seed – – 1 – – – – – – 1 – – – 0 Medicago sp. seed – – 18 – 3 – – – – 21 – – [1] [1] Medicago type 2 seed – – 8 – – – – – – 8 – – – 0 cf. Medicago sp. seed – – [1] – 1 [1] – – – – 1 [2] – – 1 1 cf. Hypericum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 Malva sp. seed – – 17 – 8 – – – – 25 – – – 0 cf. Malva sp. seed – – [1] – 1 – – – – 1 [1] – – – 0 Lolium sp. seed – – 6 [15] – [3] – – – – 6 [18] – – – 0 cf. Bromus sp. seed – – 1 [1] – 2 – – – – 3 [1] – – 1 1 Avena sp. seed – – 2 [3] [1] – – – – – 2 [4] – – – 0 Phalaris sp. seed – – 16 – – – – – – 16 – – – 0 Species FIBER PLANTS cf. Linum sp. USEFUL/MEDICINAL WEEDS OF CEREALS TABLE 14.4C (CONT.) SUBPHASE DEVELOPED PHASE 2 DEVELOPED PHASE 3 Burnt Room Burnt Room Burnt Room Floor 10 Burnt Room Floor 10 Burnt Room Floor 11 Fill 28 Fill 13 Fill 21 Fill 24 Part SU 746 SU 748 SU 749* SU 759 SU 753* SU 758 SU 784 SU 777 SU 745 cf. Najus sp. seed – – 5 – – – – – Scirpus sp. seed – – 1 [1] – – – – – Carex sp. seed – – 4 – – – – cf. Carex sp. seed – – 1 [2] – – – Polygonum sp. seed – – 2 – – cf. Beta sp. seed – – – – cf. Spergula sp. seed – – – Chenopodium sp. seed – – cf. Adonis sp. seed – – cf. Alchemilla sp. seed – cf. Trifolium sp. seed Species Pit 21 Sur 2 Fill 14 Total SU 812 SU 750 SU 765 Total – 5 – – – 0 – 1 [1] – – – 0 – – 4 – – – 0 – – – 1 [2] – – – 0 – – – – 2 – – – 0 – – – – – 0 – – – 0 – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 1 [1] – 1 – – – – 2 [1] – – – 0 1 – – – – – – 1 – – – 0 – 15 – 1 – – – – 16 – – – 0 – – [1] – – – – – – 0 [1] – – – 0 WATER PLANTS OTHER WILD PLANTS cf. Trifolium/Astragalus seed – – 1 – – – – – – 1 – – – 0 cf. Trigonella/Trifolium sp. seed – – 1 – – – – – – 1 – – – 0 cf. Cucumis sp. seed – – – – 1 – – – – 1 – – – 0 cf. Galium sp. seed – – 5 – – – – – – 5 – – – 0 cf. Echium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 Anchusa sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 cf. Myosotis sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 cf. Galeopsis sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – 1 1 cf. Lamium sp. seed – – 4 – – – – – – 4 – – – 0 cf. Melissa sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 cf. Veronica sp. seed – – 22 – 2 – – – – 24 – – – 0 cf. Cirsium sp. seed – – [1] – 1 – – – – 1 [1] – – – 0 cf. Ruppia sp. seed – – 11 – – – – – – 11 – – – 0 cf. Scorpiurus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 cf. Solanum sp. seed – – 2 – – – – – – 2 – – – 0 cf. Filago sp. seed – – 11 – – – – – – 11 – – – 0 cf. Arum sp. seed – – 1 – – – – – – 1 – – – 0 TABLE 14.4C (CONT.) SUBPHASE DEVELOPED PHASE 2 DEVELOPED PHASE 3 Burnt Room Burnt Room Burnt Room Floor 10 Burnt Room Floor 10 Burnt Room Floor 11 Fill 28 Fill 13 Fill 21 Fill 24 Part SU 746 SU 748 SU 749* SU 759 SU 753* SU 758 SU 784 SU 777 SU 745 Polygonaceae seed – – – – – – – – Cruciferae seed – – 2 – – – – Leguminosae seed – – 3 [4] – 3 [7] – Leguminosae small seed – – [3] – – Boraginaceae seed – – 4 – [2] Compositae seed – – – – Small Gramineae indet. seed – – [6] Gramineae indet. culm – – Gramineae indet. culm node – – Gramineae indet. aerial root – Species indet. seed Species indet. Type 2 Species indet. Type 3 Pit 21 Sur 2 Fill 14 Total SU 812 SU 750 SU 765 Total – 0 – – – 0 – – 2 – – 3 3 – – – 6 [11] – – – 0 – – – – 0 [3] – – – 0 – – – – 4 [2] – – – 0 – – – – – 0 – – – 0 – – – – – – 0 [6] – – – 0 9 – – – – – – 9 – – 2 2 1 – – – – – – 1 – – – 0 – – – – – – – – 0 – – 3 3 [2] – 25 [9] – 8 [28] [4] – – – 33 [43] – – 2 [1] 2 [1] seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 Species indet. Type 4 seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – 1 1 Species indet. Type 5 seed – – – – – – – – – 0 – – 1 1 Species INDETERMINATE Monocotyledonae seed – – – – [1] – – – – [1] – – – 0 unknown – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 shell – – – – – – – – – 0 – – – 0 7 [3] 0 433 [148] 0 [1] 357 [123] 0 [4] 0 0 [1] 2 279 [799] 0 [1] 3 [1] 57 [32] 60 [34] Total items nonwood 10 0 581 [1] 480 4 0 [1] 2 1,078 94 Items per liter sieved – – 1.6 0.1 1.8 0.2 – – – 102 – 63 – 30 3 – – – Quercus pubescens type 6 4 – – 1 – 6 – cf. Platanus sp. – – – – – – – – cf. Pyrus sp. – – – – – – – Olea europaea 1 – – – – – – – – 131 – 274+ 33 109 4 194 0 305 36 Carbon indet. Nutshell Total whole seeds [1] 4 89 0.25 – 2.7 198 – – – 0 1 18 5 – – 5 – 0 – – – 0 – – 0 – – – 0 – – 1 1 – – 1 – – 1 439+ – – – 0 6 0 2 655 6 0 0 6 WOOD Pinus sp. Indet. Total wood fragments 838 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.4D. EARLY HELLADIC II DEVELOPED UNPHASED BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA Context Pit 3 Pit 33 Sur 1 Fill 7 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 49 Pit 49 SU 703 877 891 879 1930 1931 1932 2022 2023 Collection method WS WS WS T WS T/WS WS WS WS Vol. deposit (liters) ? ? 117 0 26 80 46 96 88 Vol. deposit sieved (liters) ? ? 27 0 8 16 12 24 22 % deposit sieved ? ? 23 – 31 20 26 25 25 Species Total Part CEREALS Triticum monococcum seed – – 9 [2] – – – – 27 [6] 13 [7] 49 [15] Triticum monococcum spikelet fork – – 1 – – – – – – 1 Triticum dicoccum seed – – 1 [1] – – – – 6 [11] 6 [5] 13 [17] Triticum dicoccum spikelet fork – – – – – – – – – 0 Triticum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Triticum sp. glume base – – – – – – – – – 0 Triticum sp. rachis – – – – – – – – – 0 Hordeum sp. seed – – 4 [2] – – – – 32 [25] 26 [21] 62 [48] Hordeum sp. rachis – – – – – – – – – 0 Cereal indet. seed – – 1 [19] – [2] [1] 1 7 [90] [73] 9 [185] Cereal indet. awn – – – – – [1] – – – 0 [1] Cereal indet. rachis – – – – – – – – – 0 Cicer arietinum seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Vicia ervilia seed – – – – – – 2 1 [2] 5 8 [2] Vicia faba seed – – – – – – – 6 [4] 4 [2] 10 [6] Lens sp. seed [1] – 5 – – – – 4 [1] 2 11 [2] Pisum sp. seed – – – – – – – 1 [4] – 1 [4] cf. Pisum sp. seed – – 1 – – – – – – 1 Ficus carica seed 1 – 3 – 4 – 9 63 15 96 Ficus carica fruit – – – – – – – [8] – [8] Rubus sp. seed – – – – – – – 3 – 3 Prunus dulcis seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Pyrus type seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Pyrus type fruit – – – 1? – – – – – 1? Vitis vinifera seed – – [1] – – [3] – – – 0 [4] Vitis vinifera pedicel – – – – – – – – – 0 Olea europaea pit – – – – – – – – – 0 Fruit indet. fruit – – – – – – – [1] – 0 [1] seed – – – – – – – – – 0 LEGUMES FRUITS AND NUTS FIBER PLANTS cf. Linum sp. Key: See Table 14.1 839 EH II PLANT REMAINS TABLE 14.4D (CONT.) Pit 3 Species Part Pit 33 Sur 1 Fill 7 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 49 Pit 49 SU 703 SU 877 SU 891 SU 879 SU 1930 SU 1931 SU 1932 SU 2022 SU 2023 Total USEFUL/MEDICINAL Vicia sp. seed – – 6 – [2] – 1 8 [2] 3 [1] 18 [5] cf. Lathyrus sp. seed – – [1] – – – 1 – – 1 [1] cf. Lathyrus sativus seed – – 1 – – – – – – 1 Medicago lupulina type seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Medicago hispida type seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Medicago cf. minima seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Medicago sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Medicago type 2 seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Medicago sp. seed – – – – – – – 1 – 1 cf. Hypericum sp. seed – – – – – – 2 – – 2 Malva sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Malva sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Lolium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Bromus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Avena sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Phalaris sp. seed – – – – – – – – [1] [1] cf. Najus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Scirpus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Carex sp. seed – – 1 – – – – – – 1 cf. Carex sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Polygonum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Beta sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Spergula sp. seed – – – – – – – 1 – 1 Chenopodium sp. seed – 1 – – – – – – – 1 cf. Adonis sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Alchemilla sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Trifolium sp. seed – – – – – – – 1 – 1 cf. Trifolium/Astragalus seed – – – – – – – 1 – 1 cf. Trigonella/Trifolium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Cucumis sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Galium sp. seed – – 1 – – – – – – 1 cf. Echium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Anchusa sp. seed – – – – – – – 1 2 3 cf. Myosotis sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 WEEDS OF CEREALS WATER PLANTS OTHER WILD PLANTS 840 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.4D (CONT.) Pit 3 Pit 33 Sur 1 Fill 7 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 1 Pit 49 Pit 49 SU 703 SU 877 SU 891 SU 879 SU 1930 SU 1931 SU 1932 SU 2022 SU 2023 Total Species Part cf. Galeopsis sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Lamium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Melissa sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Veronica sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Cirsium sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Ruppia sp. seed – – – – – – – 1 – 1 cf. Scorpiurus sp. seed – – – – – – – 1 – 1 cf. Solanum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Filago sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Arum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Polygonaceae seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Cruciferae seed – – – – – – – 3 – 3 Leguminosae seed [2] – 1 [5] – – – – [42] [30] 1 [79] Leguminosae small seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Boraginaceae seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Compositae seed – – – – – – [1] – – 0 [1] Small Gramineae indet. seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Gramineae indet. culm – – – – – – – – – 0 Gramineae indet. culm node – – – – – – – – – 0 Gramineae indet. aerial root – – – – – – – – – 0 Species indet. seed 1 [1] – 1 [1] – [1] – – – 1 [53] 3 [56] Species indet. Type 2 seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Species indet. Type 3 seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Species indet. Type 4 seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Species indet. Type 5 seed – – – – – – – – – 0 Monocotyledonae seed – – – – – – – – – 0 unknown – – [17] – [10] – [4] [350] [373] [754] shell – – – – – – – – – 0 2 [4] 1 36 [49] 1 4 [15] 0 [5] Total items nonwood 6 1 85 1 19 5 21 714 643 Items per liter sieved ? ? 3.15 – 2.4 0.3 1.75 29.75 29.2 Pinus sp. – – – – – 10 – – – 10 Quercus pubescens type – – – – – 4 – – – 4 cf. Platanus sp. – – – – – – – – – 0 cf. Pyrus sp. – – – – – – – – – 0 Olea europaea – – – – – 15 – – – 15 Indet. 2 – 286 – 56 26 – – – 370 2 0 286 0 56 55 0 0 0 399 INDETERMINATE Carbon indet. Nutshell Total whole seeds 16 [5] 168 [546] 77 [566] 305 [1,190] 1,495 WOOD Total wood fragments EH II PLANT REMAINS 841 TABLE 14.4E. EARLY HELLADIC II PHASE UNKNOWN BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA AND TOTALS FOR ALL EARLY HELLADIC II Context Above Cis 2 Fill 2 Fill 2 Floor 1 747 71 4 720 719 Collection method T WS T WS Vol. deposit (liters) – ? – 1 3,865+ Vol. deposit sieved (liters) 0 ? 0 1 1,041+ % deposit sieved – ? – 100 26 SU Species Totals for All EH II Part CEREALS Triticum monococcum seed – – – – 126 [48] Triticum monococcum spikelet fork – – – – 2 Triticum dicoccum seed – – – 1 23 [21] Triticum dicoccum spikelet fork – – – – 2 Triticum sp. seed – – – 1 2 [4] Triticum sp. glume base – – – – 2 Triticum sp. rachis – – – – 1 Hordeum sp. seed – – – – 102 [151] Hordeum sp. rachis – – – – 1 Cereal indet. seed – – – – 53 [439] Cereal indet. awn – – – – [1] Cereal indet. rachis – – – – 1 Cicer arietinum seed – – – – [2] Vicia ervilia seed – – – – 14 [2] Vicia faba seed 1 – – – 12 [7] Lens sp. seed – – – – 63 [26] Pisum sp. seed – – – – 3 [6] cf. Pisum sp. seed – – – – 1 Ficus carica seed – – – – 672 [37] Ficus carica fruit – – – – 1 [22] Rubus sp. seed – – – – 3 Prunus dulcis seed – – – – [1] Pyrus type seed – – – – 1 Pyrus type fruit – – – – 4 Vitis vinifera seed – – – – 23 [69] Vitis vinifera pedicel – – – – 5 Olea europaea pit – – – – 1 fruit – – – – 6 [5] seed – – – – [1] LEGUMES FRUITS AND NUTS Fruit indet. FIBER PLANTS cf. Linum sp. Key: See Table 14.1 842 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.4E (CONT.) Above Cis 2 Fill 2 Fill 2 Floor 1 Part SU 747 SU 714 SU 720 SU 719 Vicia sp. seed – – – – 51 [34] cf. Lathyrus sp. seed – – – – 2 [5] cf. Lathyrus sativus seed – – – – 1 Medicago lupulina type seed – – – – 15 Medicago hispida type seed – – – – 12 Medicago cf. minima seed – – – – 1 Medicago sp. seed – – – – 21 [1] Medicago type 2 seed – – – – 8 cf. Medicago sp. seed – – – – 3 [2] cf. Hypericum sp. seed – – – – 5 [1] Malva sp. seed – – – – 25 cf. Malva sp. seed – – – – 1 [1] Lolium sp. seed – – – – 9 [18] cf. Bromus sp. seed – – – – 4 [17] Avena sp. seed – – – – 2 [4] Phalaris sp. seed – – – – 17 [1] cf. Najus sp. seed – – – – 5 [0] Scirpus sp. seed – – – – 1 [1] Carex sp. seed – – – – 5 cf. Carex sp. seed – – – – 1 [2] Polygonum sp. seed – – – – 2 cf. Beta sp. seed – – 1 – 1 cf. Spergula sp. seed – – – – 1 Chenopodium sp. seed – – – – 3 [1] cf. Adonis sp. seed – – – – 1 cf. Alchemilla sp. seed – – – – 16 cf. Trifolium sp. seed – – – – 1 [1] cf. Trifolium/Astragalus seed – – – – 2 cf. Trigonella/Trifolium sp. seed – – – – 1 cf. Cucumis sp. seed – – – – 1 cf. Galium sp. seed – – – – 6 cf. Echium sp. seed – – – – 1 Anchusa sp. seed – – – – 8 cf. Myosotis sp. seed – – – – 4 cf. Galeopsis sp. seed – – – – 2 Species Totals for All EH II USEFUL/MEDICINAL WEEDS OF CEREALS WATER PLANTS OTHER WILD PLANTS EH II PLANT REMAINS 843 TABLE 14.4E (CONT.) Above Cis 2 Fill 2 Fill 2 Floor 1 Part SU 747 SU 714 SU 720 SU 719 cf. Lamium sp. seed – – – – 4 cf. Melissa sp. seed – – – – 1 cf. Veronica sp. seed – – – – 24 cf. Cirsium sp. seed – – – – 1 [1] cf. Ruppia sp. seed – – – – 12 cf. Scorpiurus sp. seed – – – – 1 cf. Solanum sp. seed – – – – 2 cf. Filago sp. seed – – – – 11 cf. Arum sp. seed – – – – 1 Polygonaceae seed – – – – [1] Cruciferae seed – – – – 8 Leguminosae seed – – – – 13 [125] Leguminosae small seed – – – – [3] Boraginaceae seed – – – – 4 [2] Compositae seed – – – – [1] Small Gramineae indet. seed – – – – [6] Gramineae indet. culm – – – – 11 Gramineae indet. culm node – – – – 1 Gramineae indet. aerial root – – – – 3 Species indet. seed – – – – 55 [111] Species indet. Type 2 seed – – – – 1 Species indet. Type 3 seed – – – – 1 Species indet. Type 4 seed – – – – 1 Species indet. Type 5 seed – – – – 1 Monocotyledonae seed – – – – [1] unknown – – – – [802] shell – – – – [4] Total whole seeds 1 0 1 2 1,519 [1,971] Total items nonwood 1 0 1 2 3,490 Items per liter sieved – – – 2 Pinus sp. 2 – – – 239 Quercus pubescens type – – 2 – 50 cf. Platanus sp. – – – – 1 cf. Pyrus sp. – – – – 2 Olea europaea 8 – – – 46 Indet. – + – 8 2,113 10 + 2 8 2,451 Species Totals for All EH II INDETERMINATE Carbon indet. Nutshell WOOD Total wood fragments 844 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY Water-sieved Deposits Figure 14.14. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH II Initial water-sieved deposits Pit 35 was cut 0.90 m into bedrock (see Fig. 5.17), and contained a large deposit of pottery (388–398) dominated by tableware such as eating/drinking vessels and cooking ware with many joins from the central 0.35 m of the pit’s depth (SUs 1913–1917). The botanical remains from Pit 35 (Fig. 14.19) consisted of very few cereals and legumes and a predominance of fig seeds (n = 122, 77%), probably overrepresented due to factors already mentioned. The low density of plant remains and the low homogeneity of species in Pit 35 argue against its use for storage. It is more likely that this pit was used for refuse or was dug during construction of the significant EH II Developed Phase 2 architecture and filled in during its use. Pit 36 was a shallow depression that was in part combined with Pit 39 for water-sieve sampling and contained a few fig seeds and a grape seed. Pit 56 was clay-lined and cut to a depth of at least 1.51 m below bedrock. The lining suggests some type of storage facility, but the paucity of plant remains gives few clues as to what EH II PLANT REMAINS 845 Water-sieved Deposits Figure 14.15. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH II Developed Phase 1 water-sieved deposits might have been stored here (Fig. 14.20). Material from Pit 56 consisted of a few cereals, legume fragments, Boraginaceae, and Hypericum sp., an assemblage that could represent a partially cleaned, stored crop, debris from crop cleaning, hearth sweepings, or a mixture of remains from several different sources. In addition to the plant remains, SU 1948, from within Pit 56, contained a set of domestic pottery (see Fig. 5.12, 381, 383–386) similar to that from Pit 35, so the interpretation of the remains as cooking debris, or at least kitchen debris, may be warranted. Fill 10/1 was soil above Floor 6 that Harland left unexcavated (Fig. 14.15). It yielded a mixture of cereals, lentils, and a few “weed” seeds (Fig. 14.21), along with a variety of wood species. It is interesting that this deposit contained a sample of each type of wood identified from Tsoungiza. Among these are a deciduous oak and pine that may have been used in the superstructure of a building. The olive, plane, and pear wood could have been used for furniture, structural elements such as windows or roofing, or fuel. 846 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY 70 70 Percentage Percent Percentage 60 60 Percent of Total Sediment Water-sieved (n = 354 L) 50 50 Watersieved (n=1019L) Percent of Wood Items Recoveredl (n=3274) 40 40 30 30 20 20 Percent of Total Nonwood Items Recovered (n = 797) Percent of Sediment Watersieved (n=1019L) Context 10 10 00 Pit 35 Pit 36 Pit 35 Pit 56 Pit 36 Pit 56 Surface 1 Surface 2 Fill 10/1 Surface 1 Surface 2 Fill 10/1 Context Figure 14.16. EH II Developed Phase 1 comparison of percentage of sediment water-sieved and percentage of items recovered, by context 12 10 10 ater-sieved No. Items/L Water-sieved 12 8 8 6 6 4 4 2 2 0 0 Pit 35 Pit 36 Pit 56 Surface 1 Surface 2 Fill 10/1 Figure 14.17. EH II Developed Phase 1 density of nonwood items, by context Floor 6 is not clearly associated with any structure, although it abuts a stone at the base of Pit 26, just below Fill 10/1, that may be part of the southeast corner of House A (Fig. 14.15, and pp. 261–262, above). Pullen suggests, however, that Floor 6 is later than House A. Although none of the Floor 6 deposits were water-sieved, several pieces of charred pine were collected in SU 848. As Fill 10/1 was above Floor 6, the wood remains may be part of the same deposit of structural debris. Surface 2 can be traced in the Central and Southeast Sectors (Fig. 14.15, and see Chap. 5). One water-sieved sample yielded only a few seeds (barley, lentil, fig), and 10 fragments of carbon that may be parenchymetous tissue. In addition, fragments of pine, oak, and olive wood were collected from several SUs by the excavators. Summary of EH II Developed Phase 1 None of the plant assemblages from EH II Developed Phase 1 provides unequivocal evidence for a specific usage of the context in which they were discovered. For Surface 1 and Fill 10/1, the possibility of there being mixed deposits from Harland’s earlier excavations is very EH II PLANT REMAINS Other Fruit/Nut Other Ident. 0% Seeds 1% Grape 0% Other Legumes 16% 847 Fig 0% Einkorn 21% Bitter Vetch 0% Emmer 1% Lentil 0% Barley 18% Cereals Indet. 43% Figure 14.18. EH II Developed Phase 1 Surface 1, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 471) Einkorn Other Ident. 0% Seeds 10% Emmer 0% Barley 4% Cereals Indet. 0% Lentil 2% Bitter Vetch 1% Other Fruit/Nut 1% Grape 1% Other Legumes 4% 0% Fig 77% Figure 14.19. EH II Developed Phase 1 Pit 35, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 155) high. In the pits, the amount of material and the range of species is such that they cannot be securely identified as storage contexts for plants and were probably, at some point, used for refuse or were filled with debris over time after their initial use. The use of space can be seen more clearly in the plant remains from EH II Developed Phase 2. 848 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY Einkorn 7% Emmer 4% Other Ident. Seeds 35% Barley 4% Cereals Indet. 7% Lentil 4% Bitter Vetch 0% Other Fruit/Nut 0% Grape 0% Other Legumes 32% Fig 7% Figure 14.20. EH II Developed Phase I Pit 56, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 28) Other Ident. Seeds 22% Other Fruit/Nut 1% Grape 1% Einkorn 7% Emmer 5% Barley 16% Fig 7% Other Legumes 4% Bitter Vetch 0% Cereals Indet. 14% Lentil 23% Figure 14.21. EH II Developed Phase 1 Fill 10/1, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 74) EH II Developed Phase 2 Burnt Room The bulk of the plant remains from EH II deposits comes from a deposit that has been labeled Floor 10 (SU 749, Figs. 14.22, 14.23) and Floor 11 (SU 753, Fig. 14.26, below) of the Burnt Room, although these are most likely part of the same deposition rather than two superimposed floors (see pp. 315–316, above). This area was subdivided into 1.00 m2 units, EH II PLANT REMAINS 849 Water-sieved Deposits Figure 14.22. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH II Developed Phase 2 water-sieved deposits each of which was excavated and water-sieved separately. We thus have a more detailed breakdown of the contents of the floors and the distribution of material. Tables 14.5 and 14.6 provide the data for each SMU, and Figures 14.23 and 14.26 (see below) plot the density of seeds within the SMUs of each SU. We have labeled the SMUs to simplify the discussion. SU 749 (Floor 10) In total, 369 liters of sediment from 17 SMUs of Floor 10 were water-sieved (Fig. 14.23, Table 14.5). An examination of the different species represented in SU 749 (Fig. 14.24) shows that fig dominates, and barley and cereal fragments are fairly common. Also of interest is the large number of other plant remains that consist primarily of wild species (Table 14.5), many of which could have been weeds in crops and suggest use of the room as a food processing area. 850 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY 512 catalogued objects CM = concrete marker Figure 14.23. EH II Developed Phase 2 Burnt Room SU 749 (Floor 10) SMUs Although the quantity of plant remains from each SMU is small, it is possible to draw some tentative conclusions about the material and potential use of the area. Figure 14.25 plots the density of remains in each SMU of SU 749 and shows that the greatest density of plant remains was in SMU 10. In addition to some unidentified cereal grains, the sample consists largely of the type of debris removed during fine sieving and final processing of cereal crops before cooking, such as spikelet forks, glume bases, and rachis segments.11 These by-products may have been used as fodder, as is done in parts of Greece and Turkey today,12 or may have been disposed of in a hearth or rubbish pit. No hearth or pit associated with Floor 10 has been identified, although the burnt plant remains may originally have been in a hearth. Alternatively, they may have been on the floor, where they would have been charred when the structure burned. The large number of other wild plants, consisting primarily of “weed” species, provides additional support for the interpretation of Floor 10 and its associated room as a food processing area. Species such as Medicago, Malva, Lolium, Phalaris, and the many other wild plants represented here frequently occur as weeds among cereal crops. Although few are identified to the species level, it is possible to state on the basis of the size of the seeds that most could have been found in the fine sieve as by-products of crop-processing activities.13 Artifactual evidence from Floor 10 provides no evidence that this area was used for cooking, as some of the ceramics (511–528, 531) from the Burnt Room appear to be a specialized assemblage of serving and drinking vessels rather than those used for cooking (see Fig. 5.58). 11. Jones 1984. 12. Hillman 1984; Jones 1984. 13. Jones 1984, 1987. EH II PLANT REMAINS Emmer <1% Einkorn <1% Barley 4% 851 Cereals Indet. 9% Lentil 1% Bitter Vetch 0% Other Ident. Seeds 36% Other Legumes 12% Other Fruit/Nut 1% Fig 29% Grape 8% Figure 14.24. EH II Developed Phase 2 Burnt Room SU 749 (Floor 10) percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 546) 4.5 4 Items per L 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 69 7 /4 6 69 1 7/ 46 69 2 7/ 46 69 3 7/ 46 69 4 8/ 46 69 1 8/ 46 69 2 8/ 46 69 3 8/ 46 69 4 9/ 46 69 1 9/ 46 69 2 9/ 46 69 3 9/ 46 70 4 0/ 46 70 1 0/ 46 70 2 0/ 46 70 3 0/ 46 70 4 1/ 46 70 1 1/ 46 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 SMU (E20/N6) Coordinates Assigned Number Figure 14.25. Density of nonwood items in SU 749 (Floor 10) SU 753 (Floor 11) Floor 11, the lower floor of the Burnt Room, provided a large quantity of plant remains (Table 14.6, Fig. 14.26). Figure 14.27 plots the density of remains in each SMU and indicates that the greatest density of material was in the eastern portion of the room (SMUs 13–15), with only a slightly lower density in SMU 3, in the northwest corner. In each case, however, the density of material is the result of large quantities of fig seeds, and the total number of seeds (301) may represent only a single fig. Other remains include cereals (mostly unidentifiable fragments), some lentils, and a few grape seeds (Fig. 14.28). Lentils are present in most samples, but occur more commonly in the western part of the room. 852 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.5. EARLY HELLADIC II BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM BURNT ROOM SU 749 AT TSOUNGIZA SU 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 697/461 697/462 697/463 697/464 698/461 698/462 698/463 698/464 Collection method WS WS WS WS WS WS WS Vol. deposit (liters) 10 40 16 (Not 55 35 80 75 Vol. deposit sieved (liters) 2 14 4 Excav.) 10 6 24 27 % deposit sieved 20 35 25 18 17 30 36 SMU (E20/N6) Species Part CEREALS Triticum monococcum seed – – – – – [2] – Triticum dicoccum seed – – – – – 1 – Triticum dicoccum spikelet fork – – – – – – – Triticum sp. seed – – – – – [2] – Triticum sp. glume base – – – – 1 – 6 [5] Triticum sp. rachis – – – – – – – Hordeum sp. seed [2] – 2 [7] 1 [1] – – 2 Cereal indet. seed – 2 [4] [2] [1] – [1] Cereal indet. rachis – – – – – – – Lens sp. seed – – – – – 1 – Pisum sp. seed – – – – – – – Ficus carica seed – 6 – 4 1 3 [4] 5 Ficus carica fruit – – – [1] – – – Vitis vinifera seed – – – – – 1 [11] 1 Vitis vinifera pedicel – – – – – – 1 Fruit indet. fruit – – – – – – – Vicia sp. seed – – – – – – – Medicago lupulina type seed – – – – – – – Medicago hispida type seed – – – – – – – Medicago cf. minima seed – – – – – – – Medicago sp. seed – 1 – – – – 1 Medicago sp. Type 2 seed – – – – – – – Malva sp. seed – – – – – – – cf. Malva sp. seed – – – – – – – cf. Linum sp. seed – – – – – – – Lolium sp. seed 1 – – – 2 – – cf. Bromus sp. seed – 1 – – – – – Avena sp. seed – – – – – 1 – Phalaris sp. seed – – – – – – – LEGUMES FRUITS AND NUTS USEFUL/MEDICINAL WEEDS OF CEREALS Key: See Table 14.1 EH II PLANT REMAINS 853 TABLE 14.5 (CONT.) 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 699/461 699/462 699/463 699/464 700/461 700/462 700/463 700/464 701/461 701/462 WS WS WS, T WS, T WS WS WS WS, T WS WS 50 169 169 75 67 252 200 58 20 14 1,385 30 44 44 21 16 63 40 14 6 4 369 60 26 26 28 24 25 20 24 30 29 27 – – – – – – – – – – [2] – – 1 – – – – – – – 2 13 [7] 2 – – – – – – – – 15 [7] – – – – – [1] 1 – – – 1 [3] – – – – – – – – – 7 [5] – 1 – – – – – – – – 1 – 3 [1] – – 2 1 – – – 11 [11] – 13 [9] 3 [2] – 5 4 [2] – [1] – 27 [22] 26 [21] 1 – – – – – – – – 27 [21] [73] – – – – – 3 – – – 4 [73] – – – – – 1 – – – – 1 – 24 12 15 4 25 17 [18] 2 1 [7] – 119 [29] – – – – – – – – – – [1] 5 1 [11] 3 2 – 5 2 – – – 20 [22] 4 [2] – 1 – – 1 – – – – 7 [2] 2 – 3 – – – – – 3 – 8 [1] 3 – – – – – – – – 3 [1] – 15 – – – – – – – – 15 – – – – – 12 – – – – 12 – – – – – 1 – – – – 1 [1] – 12 – – – 4 – – – 18 [1] – 8 – – – – – – – – 8 – 9 3 2 – 1 2 – – – 17 – – [1] – – – – – – – [1] [1] – – – – – – – – – [1] – [14] 2 [1] – – – – – – – 5 [15] – – [1] – – – – – – – 1 [1] – – [2] – – 1 [1] – – – – 2 [3] – 12 – – 1 3 – – – – 16 Total 854 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.5 (CONT.) SU 1 SU 2 SU 3 SU 4 SU 5 SU 6 SU 7 SU 8 Part SMU 697/461 SMU 697/462 SMU 697/463 SMU 697/464 SMU 698/461 SMU 698/462 SMU 698/463 SMU 698/464 cf. Najus sp. seed – – – – – – – Scirpus sp. seed – – – – – – – Carex sp. seed – – – – – – – cf. Carex sp. seed – – – – – – – Polygonum sp. seed – – – – – 1 – Chenopodium sp. seed – – – – – – – cf. Adonis sp. seed – – – – – – – cf. Alchemilla sp. seed – – – – – 2 1 cf. Trifolium sp. seed – – – – – [1] – cf. Trifolium/Astragalus seed – 1 – – – – – cf. Trigonella/Trifolium sp. seed – – – – – – – cf. Galium sp. seed – 1 – – 2 – 1 cf. Lamium sp. seed – – – – – – – cf. Veronica sp. seed – – – – 3 – – cf. Cirsium sp. seed – – – – – – – cf. Ruppia sp. seed – 2 – – 1 2 – cf. Solanum sp. seed – – – – – – – cf. Filago sp. seed – – – – – – – cf. Arum sp. seed – – – – – – – Cruciferae seed – 1 – – – 1 – Leguminosae seed [1] – – – – [1] – Leguminosae small seed – – – – – – – Boraginaceae seed – – – – – – – Small Gramineae indet. seed – – – – – – – Gramineae indet. culm – 3 – – – – – Gramineae indet. culm node – – – – – 1 – seed – – [1] 2 [2] 5 1 1 [3] 18 2 [12] 7 [4] 9 [3] 20 [21] 13 [1] Total items nonwood 4 18 14 11 12 41 14 Items per liter sieved 2 1.3 3.5 1.1 2 1.7 0.5 Pinus sp. – – – – – 31 – Indet. – – + 16 – – 83 – – + 16 – 31 83 Species WATER PLANTS OTHER WILD PLANTS INDETERMINATE Species indet. Total whole seeds WOOD Total wood fragments EH II PLANT REMAINS 855 TABLE 14.5 (CONT.) SU 9 SU 10 SU 11 SU 12 SU 13 SU 14 SU 15 SU 16 SU 17 SU 18 SMU 699/461 SMU 699/462 SMU 699/463 SMU 699/464 SMU 700/461 SMU 700/462 SMU 700/463 SMU 700/464 SMU 701/461 SMU 701/462 Total – 1 3 – 1 – – – – – 5 – – – 1 – [1] – – – – 1 [1] – – 4 – – – – – – – 4 – [2] 1 – – – – – – – 1 [2] – – – – 1 – – – – – 2 1 [1] – – – – – – – – 1 [1] – – 1 – – – – – – – 1 – 8 2 – – – 2 – – – 15 – – – – – – – – – – [1] – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – 1 – – – – – 1 – 1 – – – – – – – – 5 – 4 – – – – – – – – 4 – 18 – – – – – 1 – – 22 – [1] – – – – – – – – [1] – 3 3 – – – – – – – 11 – 2 – – – – – – – – 2 – 11 – – – – – – – – 11 – – 1 – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – 2 – 3 – – – – – – – [2] 3 [4] – – [3] – – – – – – – [3] – – – – – 4 – – – – 4 – – – – – [6] – – – – [6] – 4 – – – – – – 1 – 8 1 – – – – – – – – – 2 3 [3] – [2] 4 – 5 5 – – [1] 25 [9] 61 [114] 147 [38] 55 [11] 24 [2] 8 66 [9] 41 [20] 3 5 [8] 0 [3] 480 [249] 175 185 66 26 8 75 61 3 13 3 729 5.8 4 1.5 1.2 0.5 1.2 1.5 0.2 2.2 0.75 2.0 7 – 1 21 – – 5 5 – – 70 84 – + 16 9 – – – 4 3 215 91 – 1+ 37 9 – 5 5 4 3 285 856 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.6. EARLY HELLADIC II BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM BURNT ROOM SU 753 AT TSOUNGIZA SU 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 697/461 697/462 697/463 697/464 698/461 698/462 698/463 698/464 Collection method WS WS WS WS WS WS, T WS WS Vol. deposit (liters 74 50 30 14 91 130 87 55 Vol. deposit sieved (liters) 14 10 7 3 20 30 20 16 % deposit sieved 19 20 23 21 22 23 23 29 SMU (E20/N6) Species Part CEREALS Triticum sp. seed – – – – – – – – Triticum sp. glume base – – – – – – – – Hordeum sp. seed – 1 [3] – – [1] 1 – Cereal indet. seed – [2] [2] – [3] [1] [5] – Cereal indet. spikelet fork – 1 – – – – – – Vicia faba seed – – – – – – – – Vicia ervilia seed – – – 2 – – – – Lens sp. seed – – 1 [1] – 3 [1] [1] [2] – Pisum sp. seed – – – – – – – – Ficus carica seed 2 2 – 1 12 10 2 11 Pyrus type seed – – – – – – – – Vitis vinifera seed [7] [1] [3] – – – [4] [3] Vicia sp. seed – – – – – – – – cf. Lathyrus sp. seed – – – – – – – [2] Medicago sp. seed – – – – – – – – cf. Medicago sp. seed – – – – – – – 1 Malva sp. seed – – – – – 3 1 – cf. Malva sp. seed – – – – – – – – Lolium sp. seed [1] – – – [2] – – – cf. Bromus sp. seed – – – – – – – – Chenopodium sp. seed – – 1 – – – – – cf. Alchemilla sp. seed – – – – – – – – cf. Cucumis sp. seed 1 – – – – – – – cf. Veronica sp. seed – – – – – 1 – – cf. Cirsium sp. seed – – – – – 1 – – Leguminosae seed – – 1 – [1] 1 – [1] Boraginaceae seed – – – – – [2] – – LEGUMES FRUITS AND NUTS USEFUL/MEDICINAL WEEDS OF CEREALS OTHER WILD PLANTS INDETERMINATE Key: See Table 14.1 EH II PLANT REMAINS 857 TABLE 14.6 (CONT.) 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 699/461 699/462 699/463 699/464 700/461 700/462 700/463 700/464 701/461 701/462 WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS 50 139 104 48 37 153 112 ? ? ? 1,174+ 10 32 28 16 9 29 28 ? ? ? 272+ 20 23 27 33 24 19 25 ? ? ? 23 – – – – – – [1] – – – [1] – – – – – 1 – – – – 1 – – 1 [1] – 1 [2] 1 – – – 5 [7] – 5 1 – – [10] – [1] – – 6 [24] – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – [1] – – – – – – – 0 [1] – – – – – – – – – – 2 1 – – – – [1] 1 [1] – – 6 [7] – – – – – [1] – – – – [1] 1 6 – 11 45 74 97 11 7 12 304 – 1 – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – [18] 2 [4] – – 2 [40] – – – – – [1] 1 – – – 1 [1] – – – – – – – – – – [2] – 3 – – – – – – – – 3 – – – – [1] – – – – – 1 [1] 1 3 – – – – – – – – 8 – – – – – – – 1 – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – [3] – 1 1 – – – – – – – 2 – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – 1 – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – 1 – – – – – – – 2 – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – [1] 1 [1] – [3] – – 3 [7] – – – – – – – – – – [2] Total 858 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.6 (CONT.) SU 1 SU 2 SU 3 SU 4 SU 5 SU 6 SU 7 SU 8 Part SMU 697/461 SMU 697/462 SMU 697/463 SMU 697/464 SMU 698/461 SMU 698/462 SMU 698/463 SMU 698/464 Species indet. seed – – [17] – – – 2 [6] Monocotyledonae seed – – – – – – – [1] 3 [8] 4 [3] 3 [26] 3 15 [7] 16 [5] 6 [11] 12 [13] Total items nonwood 11 7 29 3 22 21 17 25 Items per liter sieved 0.8 0.7 4.1 1.0 1.1 0.7 0.85 1.6 Pinus sp. – – – – – 2+ – – Quercus pubescens type – – – – – – – – Indet. – – – 2 + + 10 11 – – – 2 + 2+ 10 11 Species Total whole seeds WOOD Total wood fragments 512 catalogued objects CM = concrete marker Figure 14.26. EH II Developed Phase 2 Burnt Room SU 753 (Floor 11) SMUs The other water-sieved sample that can be dated to EH II Developed Phase 2 is Fill 28, east of the Burnt Room (Fig. 14.22). This produced seeds and chaff fragments of einkorn and barley, lentils, and various wild species indicative of processing waste. As this material is fill, it may not be directly associated with activities in the Burnt Room but rather an accumulation of material from the surrounding area. EH II PLANT REMAINS 859 TABLE 14.6 (CONT.) SU 9 SU 10 SU 11 SU 12 SU 13 SU 14 SU 15 SU 16 SU 17 SU 18 SMU 699/461 SMU 699/462 SMU 699/463 SMU 699/464 SMU 700/461 SMU 700/462 SMU 700/463 SMU 700/464 SMU 701/461 SMU 701/462 Total 1 4 – [5] – – – 1 – – 8 [28] – – – – – – – – – – 0 [1] 4 23 4 [2] 11 [5] 46 [2] 76 [34] 103 [1] 13 [9] 7 12 361 [125] 4 23 6 16 48 110 104 22 7 12 486 0.4 0.7 0.2 1 5.3 3.8 3.7 ? ? ? 1.8 – – 1 – – – 25 1 – 1 30 – – – – – – – 1 – – 1 – – – 5 10 + 200 + – 38 276+ – – 1 5 10 + 225 2+ – 39 305+ 6 Items per L 5 4 3 2 1 69 7/ 46 69 1 7/ 46 69 2 7/ 46 69 3 7/ 46 69 4 8/ 46 69 1 8/ 46 69 2 8/ 46 69 3 8/ 46 69 4 9/ 46 69 1 9/ 46 69 2 9/ 46 69 3 9/ 46 70 4 0/ 46 70 1 0/ 46 70 2 0/ 46 3 0 11 22 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 89 910 101111 1212 13 13 14 14 15 15 Figure 14.27. Density of nonwood items in SU 753 (Floor 11) Other Excavation Units Deposits from other parts of the site also produced plant remains dated to EH II (Table 14.4). Most of the material comes from EU 7 SU 1275. This has been interpreted as a primary deposit contemporary with the Burnt Room (EH II Developed Phase 2; see pp. 335–336, above). The presence of cooking ware and baking pans among the ceramics suggests a domestic deposit. Among the plant remains, grape predominates. The assemblage of plants could be from refuse from a hearth or floor, but the absence of any architectural features associated with the deposit precludes a definitive interpretation. 860 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY Other Ident. Seeds 12% Einkorn 0% Emmer 0% Barley 2% Cereals Indet. 6% Lentil 3% Bitter Vetch <1% Other Fruit/Nut 1% Other Legumes 4% Grape 9% Fig 62% Figure 14.28. EH II Developed Phase 2 Burnt Room SU 753 (Floor 11), percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 487) Summary of EH II Developed Phase 2 There are no significant changes from EH II Developed Phase 1 to EH II Developed Phase 2. A ubiquity analysis of the cultivated species, expressed as the percentage occurrence within the total number of samples, found in Floors 10 and 11 (Fig. 14.29) shows that fig again predominates, with barley (Hordeum sp.) and lentils (Lens sp.) present in many samples. Emmer (Tritium dicoccum) and einkorn (Tritium monococcum) were present only in SUs 7 and 11 of Floor 10. As will be seen below, barley is generally more common in all EH phases of occupation at Tsoungiza. Percent Occurrence in SMUs 100 90 80 70 753 60 50 749 40 30 20 10 0 Triticum monococcum Triticum dicoccum Hordeum sp. Lens sp. Ficus carica Figure 14.29. Comparative ubiquity of cultivated species in SU 749 and SU 753 EH II Developed Phase 3 Only two EH II Developed Phase 3 samples from EU 5, totaling 37 liters, were water-sieved. Remains from Pit 21, a small, conical, pebble-lined pit near Wall 21 of House B (Figs. 14.30, EH II PLANT REMAINS 861 Water-sieved Deposits Figure 14.30. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH II Developed Phase 3 water-sieved deposits Fig. 5.63) consist of a single fragment of a pea that provides no indication of the use of this unusual feature. From Fill 14, north and east of the Burnt Room, 82 seeds and seed fragments were recovered (Figs. 14.30, 14.31). Among these, lentil was predominant while other legumes, cereals, and fig were also well represented. Many of the other plants could be weeds in cereal or legume crops. Crop processing refuse may be indicated here in the form of spikelet, rachis, and culm fragments, as well as aerial roots of a cereal. Harland’s Finds in House B Harland also recovered carbonized plant remains during his excavations in 1926 and 1927. Some of these were found in the museum at Corinth and were analyzed at Boston University. In House B, now dated to EH II Developed Phase 3, a large quantity (ca. 700) of charred acorns were found in and around a small broken pithos or storage jar adjacent to the hearth in the north room (see Fig. 5.61). Harland noted that “what had caused the overturning of 862 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY Einkorn 2% Other Fruit/Nut 0% Other Ident. Seeds 18% Emmer 2% Barley 4% Cereals Indet. 9% Grape 1% Fig 15% Other Legumes 4% Bitter Vetch 0% Lentil 45% Figure 14.31. EH II Developed Phase 3 Fill 14, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 37) the jar and the spilling of the bean-like halves of acorns onto the hearth, it would be idle to speculate.”14 Perhaps, but it seems likely that the structure, or at least this room, burned, causing the charring of the acorns. The storage vessel could have fallen from a shelf or been broken when a shelf or beam from the room fell on it. Other acorns were found in the south room near the northwest corner. The acorns are large (100 samples averaged 0.0207 x 0.0082 m) and may be from either the valonia oak (Quercus macrolepis) or the holm oak (Quercus ilex), neither of which grows in the area today. Valonia oaks are deciduous or semideciduous and have large acorns. As noted above, all of the identified oak charcoal from the site is of the deciduous type. Peas from several deposits are also mentioned in Harland’s notes, but most of these remains have been lost over the years. One and a half peas were recovered from the acorn deposit in the north room, and 25 barley grains were found mixed with the large acorn deposit. Harland reported finding five pithoi in the north room, in addition to a hydria, a sauceboat, and a firedog stand. Clearly this was a food storage and preparation area. The barley and acorns may have been mixed after deposition or during excavation, as it seems unlikely that they would have been stored together in the same jar. Other EH II Deposits EH II Developed (Unphased) Eight additional samples from EU 5 have yielded plant remains of EH II date (Tables 14.4d, e), but the chronological subphase of their associated contexts cannot be determined (Fig. 14.32). Surface 1 SU 891 produced einkorn, barley, and lentils with a few other legumes and “weed” seeds. Pit 1 (Fig. 14.33) yielded a few fragments of cereals, legumes, fig, and grape, as well as fragments of pine, oak, and olive wood. Among the most productive contexts in EH II is Pit 49 (Fig. 14.34), which produced relatively large quantities of cereals and legumes. Hundreds of fragments of carbon that 14. Harland MS, p. 63. EH II PLANT REMAINS 863 Water-sieved Deposits Figure 14.32. Plan of Tsoungiza showing EU 5 EH II Developed unphased water-sieved deposits may be parenchymatous tissue were also retrieved. There were very few other seed remains that might indicate that this was a storage pit or refuse deposit from kitchen waste. Summary of EH II Figure 14.35 illustrates the percentage of cultivated species represented in EH II samples from EU 5. As in EH I, fig makes up a substantial proportion of the remains. Einkorn and barley predominate among the cereals. The paucity of emmer as compared with the other two cereals raises the question of whether emmer was a common crop at Tsoungiza or was grown as part of a maslin with einkorn, barley, or both. Unfortunately, with so little material overall, it is not possible to answer this question. A similar relationship among the plants can be seen in a plot of the ubiquity of these species (Fig. 14.36). Fig is present in a greater percentage of samples than any other plant. 864 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY Other Ident. Seeds 14% Einkorn 0% Emmer 0% Barley 0% Cereals Indet. 14% Lentil 0% Other Fruit/Nut 0% Bitter Vetch 7% Grape 11% Other Legumes 7% Fig 47% Figure 14.33. EH II Developed unphased Pit 1, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 28) Other Fruit/Nut 0% Other Ident. Seeds 10% Einkorn 9% Emmer 5% Grape 0% Fig 13% Barley 17% Other Legumes 15% Bitter Vetch 3% Lentil 1% Cereals Indet. 27% Figure 14.34. EH II Developed Pit 49, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 613) Barley and lentil are nearly twice as ubiquitous in the EU 5 contexts as emmer, einkorn, and vetch, which occur in only about 10% of the samples. The data indicate that barley and lentils were the most common plant remains found on the site in EH II, and suggest that they were the principal crops grown at Tsoungiza during this period. The bulk of the EH II botanical material comes from surface deposits, primarily Surface 1, where a concentration of einkorn wheat was found. Floors 10 and 11 and the fills and pits EH II PLANT REMAINS Einkorn 5% 865 Emmer 1% Barley 7% Cereals Indet. 14% Other Remains 41% Lentils 3% Bitter Vetch 0% Other Legumes 9% Other Fruit/Nut 0% Fig 20% Figure 14.35. EH II species represented as percentages of total nonwood items (n = 3,490) Percent Occurrence in Total Number of Samples 60 50 40 30 20 10 e liv O pe G ra Fi g a Pe il nt Le Fa v a Be a n ch y rV et rle tte Ba Bi Em m er Ei nk or n 0 Figure 14.36. Ubiquity of selected species in EH II (n = 91) contained relatively little plant material, with the exception of Pit 49 (Fig. 14.37). We have been able to show (Fig. 14.38) that the remains are unevenly distributed across the Burnt Room, with cereals and legumes dominating the western portion and fig seeds predominant in the eastern section of the room. It would also appear that the assemblage of plant remains on these floors represent fine sieving or other crop processing waste, and we suggest that the room was used for food preparation. The plant remains from EH II indicate that there was no change from earlier periods in the type of crop grown. Figure 14.39 plots the percentage of the total number of seeds per phase for the main categories of plant remains from EH I and EH II. Einkorn, emmer, barley, lentils, and bitter vetch are all present in these deposits in relatively small percentages. Again, fig predominates, though reduced in EH II. Grape is also more common in EH II than in EH I, where the nine seeds constitute less than 1% of the plant remains. It is not possible to compare the ubiquity of species for the two periods, as there are so few (four) EH I PALAEOETHNOBOTANY No. Items/L 866 8 6 4 2 0 Pits Floors Fills Surface Figure 14.37. EH II density of nonwood items, by context 100 Percent of Total Seeds in SMU 90 80 Einkorn Einkorn 70 Emmer Emmer 60 Barley Barley 50 Lentil Lentil 40 Fig Fig 30 20 Other Other 10 69 7/ 4 69 61 7/ 4 69 62 7/ 4 69 63 7/ 4 69 64 8/ 4 69 61 8/ 4 69 62 8/ 4 69 63 8/ 4 69 64 9/ 4 69 61 9/ 4 69 62 9/ 4 69 63 9/ 4 70 64 0/ 4 70 61 0/ 4 70 62 0/ 4 70 63 0/ 4 70 64 1/ 4 70 61 1/ 46 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 SU 749 SMUs Percent SMU PercentofofTotal TotalSeeds Seedsper in SMU 100 90 80 WWheat he at Ba atBarley rle y yLeLentil lnti Fi l Fig g OtOther he 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 1 10 2 2 2 2 2 01 10 11 11 11 11 11 15 15 15 15 15 18 18 18 18 18 69 7/ 4 69 61 7/ 4 69 62 7/ 4 69 63 7/ 4 69 64 8/ 4 69 61 8/ 4 69 62 8/ 4 69 63 8/ 4 69 64 9/ 4 69 61 9/ 4 69 62 9/ 4 69 63 9/ 4 70 64 0/ 4 70 61 0/ 4 70 62 0/ 4 70 63 0/ 4 70 64 1/ 4 70 61 1/ 46 2 1 1 1 10 1 2 3 10 10 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 SU 753 SMUs Figure 14.38. Comparison of distribution of seed density in SU 749 (Floor 10) and SU 753 (Floor 11) contexts. Differences in the types of contexts represented by EH I and EH II plant remains also present problems for assessing temporal trends, so that it is possible only to compare pit deposits between EH I and II. EH II PLANT REMAINS 867 60 Percentage 50 EH I EH I 40 30 20 EH II EH II 10 0 E er n or k in m Em y il nt le r Ba Le ch et rV tte Bi g Fi pe ra G er th O Number of Seeds per 10 L of Water-sieved Sediment Figure 14.39. Comparison of percentages of selected species in EH I and EH II 30 30 25 25 Einkorn Einkorn 20 20 Emmer Emmer Barley Barley 15 15 10 10 1 10 2 15 11 18 OtLentil he Bitter Vetch Bitter Vetch Lentil Fig 55 00 Pit 17 Pit 55 Pit 48 EH I Pits Pit 35 Pit 36 Pit 56 Pit 1 Pit 49 EH II Pits Figure 14.40. Density of species in EH I and EH II pits Figure 14.40 illustrates the density of remains of the most common plants in EH I and EH II pits. EH I pits 17 and 48 are dominated by cereals and legumes while Pit 55 has primarily fig seeds. In the EH II pits, there are fewer remains overall. Fig dominates in Pits 35, 36, and 1, while Pit 49 contains cereals and legumes. Comparative Material There is very little comparative material for the EH II botanical remains from Tsoungiza (Table 14.7), which therefore contribute significantly to filling a gap in our understanding of EH II subsistence. At Lerna, Hopf identified primarily legumes such as lentils, fava beans, and peas from the Lerna III deposits.15 Very few grains of cereals were found, though emmer, einkorn, and barley were present. Notable at Lerna is the presence of a single grain of naked barley (Hordeum vulgare var. nudum), not identified at Tsoungiza. In addition, flax (Linum sp.) was recovered from Lerna III deposits. No flax was recovered from Tsoungiza deposits, 15. Hopf 1961. n=2 n = 33 Skoteini Plateia Magoula Zarkou Tsani Synoro Sesklo Myrtos n=4 Phaistos n=3 Debla Kastanas Tiryns, EH III n=1 Argissa n=3 Tiryns, EH II n = 12 Lerna IV–V n = 16 Pefkakia n=5 Lerna IV Species Lerna III Site Lerna II–III TABLE 14.7. EARLY HELLADIC COMPARATIVE BOTANICAL MATERIAL FROM GREECE n=4 CEREALS Triticum monococcum – 12 – – – – 77 50 100 – – – – – – – + Triticum dicoccum – 12 – 33 1* – 76 100 100 + – – + – – 50 + Triticum aestivum/durum – – – – – – 3 – – – – – – – – – – Tiriticum sp. – – – – – – – – – – – + – – – – – Hordeum vulgare 20 6 25 – – – 91 100 100 + + + – – + 50 + Hordeum vulgare var. nudum 40 – 8 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 6 – – – – – – – – – – Lens 20 19 – – + – 54 33 100 – – – – – – – – Vicia ervilia – 19 – – + + 70 – 25 – – – – – – 25 – Vicia faba 80 37 33 – + – 15 – – – – – – – – – + Pisum 20 37 – – – – 3 – – – – – – – – – + Lathyrus cicera – 12 8 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Lathyrus sativus – – – – – – 12 – – – – – – – – – + Lathyrus sp. 20 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Vicia sp. – 6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Cicer arietinum – – – – – – 3 – – – – – – – – – + Linum – 12 – – – – 42 – 25 – – – – – – – – Camelina sativa – – – – – – 1 – – – – – – – – – – Papaver – – – – + – 1 – – – – – – – – – – Ficus 40 31 – – + + 45 100 100 – – – – – – – – Vitis – – 33 33 + + 42 – 50 – – + – + – – – MILLETS Panicum miliaceum LEGUMES OIL AND FIBER PLANTS FRUIT AND NUTS Key: See Table 14.1 n = number of samples studied, otherwise only presence (+) or absence (–) of material is indicated *spikelet fork Lerna II–III Lerna III Lerna IV Lerna IV–V Tiryns, EH II Tiryns, EH III Kastanas Pefkakia Argissa Debla Phaistos Myrtos Sesklo Synoro Tsani Plateia Magoula Zarkou Skoteini TABLE 14.7 (CONT.) Quercus – – 8 33 – – 51 – – – – – – – – – – Arbutus – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Olea – – – – + – – – – – + + – – – – – Prunus – 6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Pyrus – – – – – – 6 – 25 – – – – – – – – Cornus mas – – – – – – 6 – – – – – – – – – – Sambucus ebulus – – – – – – 12 – 75 – – – – – – – – Rubus fruticosis s.l. – – – – – – 3 – – – – – – – – – – Medicago – – – – + – 6 – 25 – – – – – – – – Malva sp. – – – – – + – – 25 – – – – – – – – Lithospermum officinale – – – – – – 3 – – – – – – – – – – Hyoscymus sp. – – – – – – 1 – 25 – – – – – – – – Lolium temulentum – – – – + – 57 – 25 – – – – – – – – Galium spurium & similar – – – – – – 27 – 25 – – – – – – – – Lithospermum arvense – – – – – + 9 33 25 – – – – – – – – Polygonum convolvulus – – – – – – 27 – 50 – – – – – – – – Rumex acetosella – – – – – – – – 50 – – – – – – – – Adonis sp. – – – – – – – – 25 – – – – – – – – Scleranthus sp. – – – – – – – – 25 – – – – – – – – Verbascum sp. – – – – – – – – 25 – – – – – – – – Bromus – – – – – – 3 – – + – – – – – – – Avena – – – – + – 6 – 75 + – – – – – 25 – Plantago lanceolata – – – – – – 9 – – – – – – – – – + Fumaria sp. – – – – – – 3 – – – – – – – – – – Site Species USEFUL/MEDICINAL WEEDS OF CEREALS Lerna II–III Lerna III Lerna IV Lerna IV–V Tiryns, EH II Tiryns, EH III Kastanas Pefkakia Argissa Debla Phaistos Myrtos Sesklo Synoro Tsani Plateia Magoula Zarkou Skoteini TABLE 14.7 (CONT.) Portulaca oleracea – – – – – – 6 – – – – – – – – – – Setaria viridis & similar – – – – – – 3 – – – – – – – – – – Cynodon dactylon – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Weeds of Flax – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Lolium remotum – – – – – – 3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 3 – – – – – – – – – – Onopordon – – 8 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Physalis – – – – + – – – – – – – – – – – – Chenopodiaceae – – – – – – 57 – 50 – – – – – – – – Polygonaceae – – – – – – 33 – 75 – – – – – – – – Cyperaceae – – – – – – 30 33 25 – – – – – – – – Plantaginaceae – – – – – – – 33 25 – – – – – – – – Gramineae – – – – – – 30 33 75 – – – – – – – + Fabaceae, Trifolium type – – – – – – 21 – – – – – – – – – – Fabaceae, Vicia type – – – – – – 9 – – – – – – – – – – Compositae – – – – + – 3 – – – – – – – – – – Cruciferae – – – – – – 6 – – – – – – – – – – Caryophyllaceae – – – – – – 3 – 50 – – – – – – – – Euphorbiaceae – – – – – – – – 25 – – – – – – – – Scrophulariaceae – – – – – – – 33 – – – – – – – – – Site Species WEEDS OF LEGUMES WATER PLANTS Alisma plantago-aquatica OTHER PLANTS UNIDENTIFABLE EH III PLANT REMAINS 871 although it could have been grown successfully in the region. It would have been harvested prior to seed set if it had been used for textile production, so its archaeological absence may not mean that it was absent at Tsoungiza (see Chap. 8 for textile production). EH III PLANT REMAINS Very little plant material was recovered from the excavations of Early Helladic III deposits in EU 5 (Fig. 14.41, Table 14.8). While nine deposits were water-sieved, the sediment volumes were recorded for only two and it is not, therefore, possible to examine the difference in density among the various contexts. Identified plant remains include those cereals and legumes already seen in EH II samples. In terms of absolute numbers, Pit 24 and Fill 23 produced more remains of seeds than did the other deposits from EH III. Barley is the predominant cereal in these deposits as well as the others, and lentils are common in several samples. Few other species are well represented. Water-sieved Deposits Figure 14.41. Plan of Tsoungiza EU 5 showing EH III NVAP water-sieved deposits TABLE 14.8. EARLY HELLADIC III BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM TSOUNGIZA Pit 11 Surface 2? Pit 24 Pit 30 Pit 44 Pit 44, pot Fill 23 Fill 23 Fill 23 Fill 23 (Burnt) SU 707 726 806 813 1956 1956 712 730 802 819 Collection method WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS WS Vol. deposit (liters) ? ? ? 28 ? ? ? 1 ? ? Context Vol. deposit sieved (liters) % deposit sieved Species EU 2 EU 10 EU 7 EU 6 361 Pit 1 Sondage 912 T WS WS WS 29+ – 253 18 40 EU 5 Total HOQ* ? ? ? 28 ? ? ? 1 ? ? 29+ 0 69 18 10 50 ? ? 100 ? ? ? 100 ? ? ? – 27 100 25 Part CEREALS Triticum monococcum seed – 1 [1] – 2 [1] – – – 1 2 6 [2] – – – – – Triticum dicoccum seed – 1 9 [5] – – – – – 4 5 [1] 19 [6] – – 11 – [3] Triticum durum/aestivum seed – – 3 – – – – – – – 3 – – – – – Triticum sp. seed – [1] – – – – – – – – [1] – – – – – Hordeum vulgare seed 1 – – – – – – – – 49 50 – – – – – Hordeum sp. seed – 1 [1] 69 [126] [2] 1 [1] 1 [2] – – 5 [4] [74] 77 [210] 34 [7] – 5 [1] 1 3 Hordeum sp. rachis – – 1 – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – Cereal indet. seed [4] [8] [132] [3] [27] – – – [5] 6 [102] 6 [281] [15] – [34] – [6] Vicia ervilia seed – – 1 – 1 – – – – 1 3 1 – – – 2 Vicia faba seed – – 2 – – – – – – 1 3 1 – – – – Lens sp. seed – 1 [1] 6 3 [3] – – – – 123 [62] – – 5 [2] [1] 11 [2] Pisum sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – [4] – – Ficus carica seed – – 23 – 3 – – – 2 6 34 – – 4 1 2 Pyrus type seed – – – – – – – – – 1 1 – – – – – LEGUMES 101 [37] 12 [21] FRUITS AND NUTS Pyrus type fruit – – 1 – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – Vitis vinifera seed – – 1 – – – 1 – – 1 3 – – 3 – – Quercus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – 1 [137]** – – – – cf. Quercus shell – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – Fruit indet. fruit – – [1] – – – – – – – – [1] – – – – Olea sp. seed [1] – – – – – – – – – [1] – – – – [1] seed – – 3 [1] [1] – 1 – – 2 – 6 [2] – – 1 – – USEFUL/MEDICINAL Vicia sp. cf. Lathyrus sativus seed – – 1 – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – Medicago sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – 3 – – TABLE 14.8 (CONT.) Surface 2? Pit 24 Pit 30 Fill 23 Fill 23 (Burnt) SU 707 SU 726 SU 806 SU 813 SU 1956 SU 1956 SU 712 SU 730 SU 802 SU 819 Pit 11 Species Part Pit 44 Pit 44, pot Fill 23 Fill 23 EU 5 Total HOQ* EU 2 EU 10 SU 361 Pit 1 EU 7 EU 6 Sondage SU 912 WEEDS OF CEREALS Lolium sp. seed – 1 1 – – – – – – 1 [1] 3 [1] – – – – – Avena sp. seed – – – – – – – – 2 – 2 – – 2 – – Phalaris sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – Bromus sp. seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2 [1] – – Hordeum cf. murinum seed – – – – – – – – – [1] [1] – – 2 – – cf. Beta sp. seed 1 – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – OTHER WILD PLANTS cf. Alchemilla sp. seed – – 1 – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – Galium sp. seed – – – – – – – – 1 2 3 – – 1 – – cf. Veronica sp. seed 1 – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – Malva seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – Cruciferae seed – – – – – – – – – – – – – 3 – – Leguminosae seed [1] – 7 – – – – – – [5] 7 [6] 1 – – – [2] Boraginaceae seed 1 – – – – – – – – – 1 – – – – – Small Gramineae indet. seed – – – – – – – – – [1] [1] – – – – – Species indet. seed [2] – [2] – – – – – – – [4] 2 – 30 – – Species indet. fruit – – – – – – – – – – 1 – – [1] – – – – – – [4] – – – – – [4] – – – – – INDETERMINATE Carbon indet. 3 [9] 7 [33] 2 [2] 1 0 0 74 [43] 2 [1] 18 [14] Total items nonwood 12 16 397 12 40 4 1 0 164 293 939 201 0 117 3 32 Items per liter sieved ? ? ? 4.3 ? ? ? 0 ? ? – – 0 1.7 0.2 3.2 Total whole seeds 4 [8] 5 [11] 129 [268] 118 [46] 87 [206] 356 [583] 42 [159] WOOD Pinus sp. – – – – – – – – – – – 1 1 – – – Quercus pubescens type – 4 – 1 – – – – – – 5 – – – – – Olea europaea – – – – – – – + – – + 63 – – – – Indet. 58 10 112 32 39 – – – + – 251 – – + – – 58 14 112 33 39 0 0 + + 0 256+ 64 1 – – – Total wood fragments Key: See Table 14.1 *House of the Querns/House E **Area P, Area P level III, and Areas P and R 874 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY At the eastern edge of EU 5, Pit 11 was partially uncovered. This clay-lined pit was 0.50 m deep and had a very low density of plant remains. Identifiable species include barley and olive, while seeds of cf. Veronica, cf. Beta, Boraginaceae, Crucifereae, and cereals were also recovered. Pit 11 is unlikely to have been a storage feature, at least in its final use, on the basis of the paucity of remains coupled with the high diversity of species. It does, however, indicate that the use of barley and olive continued in EH III. In the central part of EU 5, Fill 23 was ashy, burnt soil west of the House of the Querns. It yielded an assemblage of remains (Fig. 14.42) similar to that of Pit 24 and may represent a rubbish dump for hearth cleanings. Pit 30 was cut into Fill 23 and lined with a thick layer of white clay. This pit yielded only a few cereals, lentils, and fig seeds. Grape Other Fruit/Nut Other Ident. Seeds 0.2% 0.2% 1% Fig Einkorn 2% Other Legumes 1% Emmer 2% 2% Bitter Vetch 0.2% Barley 28% Lentil 39% Cereals Indet. 25% Figure 14.42. EH III Fill 23, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 445) Pit 24 is in the northern part of EU 5 and may correspond to a feature originally identified by Harland as a hearth. This pit was clay-lined and contained burnt debris and pottery. Barley and unidentified cereal fragments dominate the plant assemblage but a few legumes and fig seeds were also recovered (Fig. 14.43). This pattern, similar to that of the mixed deposits seen in earlier pits, makes it difficult to identify the function of the pit from these remains. The clay lining and the predominance of cereals here, however, may indicate original use as a crop storage facility and subsequent use as a refuse dump. Pit 44 yielded substantially fewer botanical remains than did the other EH III contexts (Fig. 14.44), although here also, cereals predominate. Most are unidentifiable cereal fragments, but barley and einkorn were also identified. Bitter vetch, other legumes, and fig make up the rest of the remains. This pit was recognized as a difference in soil within a fill deposit (SU 1952; see p. 464, above) and may have been a place where Harland had excavated lower than usual in this area. The lack of a clear architectural context and the paucity of plant remains preclude any decisive interpretation of this deposit. Harland Material from House E/House of the Querns The plant remains recovered by the NVAP excavations indicate that the same assemblage of cereals and legumes were grown in EH III as in earlier periods, and that fig was exploited EH III PLANT REMAINS Other Legumes 4% Grape 0.2% Other Fruit/Nut 0% 875 Other Ident. Seeds 2% Fig 6% Bitter Vetch 0.2% Einkorn 0.2% Emmer 4% Lentil 2% Cereals Indet. 34% Barley 48% Figure 14.43. EH III Pit 24, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 394) Grape 0% Other Legumes 3% Other Fruit/Nut 0% Fig 8% Bitter Vetch 3% Lentil 0% Other Ident. Seeds 0% Einkorn 7% Emmer 0% Barley 12% Cereals Indet. 67% Figure 14.44. EH III Pit 44, percentages of identifiable seeds (n = 40) during all EH periods. Harland’s excavations in 1926–1927 provide additional plant remains in the form of acorns. In House E/House of the Querns (Figs. 14.45, 6.10), Harland reports finding acorns in Pithoi 4 and 5, as well as on the floor between the pithoi. In addition, peas and other seeds (unidentified at the time of excavation and now lost) were reported from this structure. The number of storage vessels and grinding tools suggests that the House of the Querns was used for food storage and processing and, clearly, acorns were among those foods. A few acorns were present in the EH III (Lerna IV) levels at Lerna, but Kroll does not report any from Tiryns.16 At Tsoungiza, the association of acorns with storage vessels and 16. Lerna: Hopf 1961, 1962; Tiryns: Kroll 1982. 876 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY Figure 14.45. EH II Developed Phase 3 and EH III contexts with acorns found by Harland grinding stones indicates that they were collected for human consumption and may have been an important component of the diet. They would have provided substantial vegetable fat and protein, but may have required some processing to remove the bitter tannins prior to being eaten. This is often accomplished through soaking or leaching of the whole or crushed nut. Some species of oak, however, produce sweet acorns that can be eaten without any processing. The species represented at Tsoungiza has not been securely identified, as noted above, but both valonia oak and holm oak acorns have been considered by some as “sweet” and not needing processing to make them palatable. Mason provides an overview of the use of acorns in ancient times.17 Holm oak (Quercus ilex) can be both bitter and sweet. Quercus macrolepis, valonia oak, acorns are also mentioned in texts and are said to be either 17. Mason 1992; 1995, p. 19. AGRICULTURE AND SUBSISTENCE AT EH TSOUNGIZA 877 bitter or sweet (Theopr. Hist. pl. 3.8.2, 3). Theophrastus also notes that the people of Mount Ida rank the acorns of valonia as the sweetest, gall oak (Quercus infectoria) second, scrub oak (Quercus languinosa) third, sea-bark oak (Quercus pseudo-robur) fourth, and Turkey oak (Quercus cerris) last (Hist. pl. 3.8.2). The Macedonians are said to distinguish four kinds of acorn, the sweetest being true oak (Quercus robur), scrub oak being bitter, valonia oak as round with no reference to sweetness, and Turkey oak as being poor (Theophr. Hist. pl. 3.8.7). The acorns found in the House of the Querns were associated with large storage jars and numerous grinding stones, suggesting that they were probably at least ground or broken up prior to cooking or consumption. There is no clear evidence, however, for or against their also having been soaked or leached. Summary of EH III The EH III plant remains are similar to those of EH I and EH II. Barley and lentils are the predominant crops, and acorns also continue to be exploited. The paucity of EH III botanical remains in any one context, with the exception of the House of the Querns, precludes a definitive interpretation of the pits as storage facilities, despite the fact that some of them are lined with clay. MIXED DEPOSITS Table 14.9 provides the lists of botanical remains from deposits of mixed date from EU 6 and EU 7. The species represented are similar to those of the dated samples, but there is little point in further analysis of the samples without being able to assign them to a specific period or phase. The following discussion is based on the analysis of the dated samples only. AGRICULTURE AND SUBSISTENCE AT EH TSOUNGIZA Food Resources Table 14.10 provides a list of the possible food resources represented by the botanical remains from Tsoungiza and their nutritional values. The major sources of vegetable protein would have been the legumes and cereals, while almond, acorn, and olive would have provided substantial amounts of fat and more calories per 100 g than the other resources. Leaching of the acorns would have reduced the water-soluble vitamins such as vitamin C,18 but this could have been recovered from other sources such as grapes or leafy greens, which were probably collected but have left no trace in the archaeological record. The use of acorns for food has been a topic of much study, particularly in the Americas where ethnographic and archaeological evidence indicate that Native Americans in California and the eastern United States relied on them heavily.19 In the Old World, however, acorns have more often been identified with pig husbandry, and their use as a human food resource relegated to times of scarcity, crop failure, and famine.20 Vencl has summarized the data on archaeobotanical finds of acorns in southern and southwestern Europe (Spain, Portugal, southern France, and Italy) and notes that “acorns occur at a total of 24% of sites containing 18. Petruso and Wickens 1984. 19. Gifford 1936; Driver 1953; Basgall 1987. 20. Vencl 1996. 878 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.9. BOTANICAL REMAINS FROM CONTEXTS OF MIXED DATE AT TSOUNGIZA Context EU 6 Fill/ wash? EU 6 Fill EU 6 Fill EU 6 Fill EU 6 Fill EU 7 North of Wall 26 EU 6 912 EU 6 911 EU 6 913 EU 6 915 EU 6 916 EU 7 1242 Collection method WS WS WS T T WS Vol. deposit (liters) 40 48 48 Vol. deposit sieved (liters) 10 12 12 % deposit sieved 25 25 25 SU Species 0 0 Total 18 154 18 52 100 34 Part CEREALS Triticum dicoccum seed – 2 – – – – 2 Triticum sp. seed – – [2] – – – [2] Hordeum sp. seed – – – – – 1 1 Cereal indet. seed [6] [13] – – – – [19] Vicia ervilia seed 2 – – – – – 2 Lens sp. seed – 6 [9] 1 – – [1] 7 [10] Ficus sp. seed – – – – – 1 1 Pyrus type seed 1 – – – – – 1 Pyrus type fruit – – – 2 – – 2 Vitis sp. seed – – 1 – – – 1 Olea sp. seed [1] – – – – – [1] Leguminosae indet. seed – 1 [4] – – – – 1 [4] Seed indet. seed – – 1 – – – 1 capsule [1] – – – – – [1] – 2 1 – – – 3 3 [8] 11 [26] 4 [2] 2 – 2 [1] 22 [37] Total items nonwood 11 37 6 2 – 3 59 Items per liter sieved 1.1 3.1 0.5 – – 0.2 1.1 Quercus pubescens type – – 1 – – – 1 Indet. – 11 51 24 1 – 87 – 11 52 24 1 – 88 LEGUMES FRUITS AND NUTS INDETERMINATE Species indet. Carbon indet. Total whole seeds WOOD Total wood fragments Key: See Table 14.1 palaeobotanical evidence, representing the third or fourth most frequent palaeobotanical species in each of the countries.”21 Of the 36 Greek sites discussed by Kroll, 10 (27%) had remains of acorns.22 Aside from those at Lerna, noted above, the only other contemporary remains of acorn come from the EBA levels at Kastanas.23 They are present on sites dating from the Early Neolithic (Sesklo, Nea Nikomedea, Prodromos) through the Early Iron Age 21. Vencl 1996. 22. Kroll 1991. 23. Kroll 1983. TABLE 14.10. NUTRITIONAL DATA FOR SOME EDIBLE SPECIES FROM SITES IN THE AEGEAN REGION (100 G EDIBLE PORTION) Species Calories Water (g) Carbohydrate (g) Fiber (g) Ash (g) Barley 318 10.5 9.7 1.9 75.4 6.5 2.5 55 341 4.5 16 0.38 0.20 7.2 trace Einkorn wheat – 8.3 14.7 2.2 4.0 13.5 5.6 – – – – – – – – Emmer wheat – 8.9 12.0 1.5 71.9 10.7 3.9 – – – – – – – – 337 11.2 25.0 1.0 59.5 3.7 3.3 59 423 7.4 570 0.56 0.24 2.2 0.5 Bitter vetch – – 22.8 1.0 – – – – – – – – – – – Lathyrus – – 24.4 0.5 – – – – – – – – – – – Pea 343 12.0 22.5 2.0 61.0 4.7 2.5 8.0 290 5.9 83 0.57 0.17 3.0 1.0 Almond 547 4.7 18.6 54.1 19.6 2.7 3.0 254 475 4.4 0.0 0.25 0.67 4.6 trace Apple 32 91.4 0.4 0.3 7.7 1.1 0.2 12 146 0.2 767 0.02 0.06 0.4 1,677.6 Pistachio (wild) – – 7.2 13.0 – – – – – – – – – – – Grape 57 83.9 2.0 12.9 12.9 3.5 0.8 62 41 2.2 80 0.04 0.04 1.2 6.0 Olive 884 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20–30 6–8 5–20 60–80 2–3 2–3 – – – – – – – – Lentil Acorn* 200–500 Protein (g) Fat (g) Calcium Potassium (mg) (mg) Iron (g) Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Ascorbic (I.U.) (mg) (mg) (mg) Acid (mg) Sources: After Franchthi 7, pp. 115, 126, 152; USDA Food Composition Tables (http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcompdata). Note: Where no amount is given, data are unavailable; where 0.0 is recorded, the nutrient is not present. *Data on various species combined from Petruso and Wickens 1984; Ford 1979; Basgall 1987. 880 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY (Kastanas) in Greece and most likely played a role in the diet. From ancient sources we know that the Arcadians, Macedonians, and the people of Mount Ida ate acorns. Depending on the species, acorns can be stored for up to 30 years24 and can be collected in large quantities in a relatively short time. Basgall estimates up to 25 kg per day could be collected, and notes that it took California Native Americans one month to collect sufficient acorns for a full year’s consumption.25 Oak trees do not produce large crops each year, but rather every two to four years on average. In a large stand of trees, however, some will bear a rich mast in any given year, yielding anywhere from 25 kg to 450 kg of acorns.26 One hectare of mature oak woods could produce between 350 kg and 1,000 kg of acorns. Crops Emmer and einkorn wheat, barley, lentils, peas, bitter vetch, fava beans, and possibly other legumes were the principal crops grown in the Early Helladic period at Tsoungiza. The absence of discernible change in these species from EH I through EH III suggests that the Tsoungiza agricultural system was highly stable. There is no clear evidence for increased exploitation of marginal land resulting from the introduction of the plow, as suggested by the figurines (739–742) of yoked oxen from Tsoungiza discussed by Pullen,27 and the osteological evidence for EBA use of cattle as draft animals, as reported by Halstead (p. 793, above). The predominance of barley, however, may indicate that more marginal areas were being utilized and/or that the climate was becoming drier. The question of whether the cereals were grown as individual crops or as a maslin is impossible to answer given the nature of the deposits. There is no pure deposit of any cereal or legume, but rather every sample contained seeds of at least two and usually three of the primary species. Van der Veen and Fieller have shown by experimentation the number of seeds in a sample that are necessary to estimate that particular species’ contribution to a population.28 To determine with a 95% confidence level (±5%) that a given species constitutes 50% of a crop population of infinite size, at least 384 seeds of that taxon must be present in the sample. For a taxon making up 10% or 90% of the population, at least 138 seeds of that species must be counted. In no sample from EH Tsoungiza are there more than 75 grains of any cereal or legume, and thus the sample sizes are too small to gain any insight into the composition of the crop population. Glynis Jones has noted, however, that on the Aegean island of Amorgos crops considered by the farmers as a maslin of wheat and barley may contain a substantially greater proportion of one than another, depending on weather, soil conditions, or competition. Thus a wheatbarley maslin may contain up to 80% of one or the other taxon. “Farmers reported that they tended to sow wheat-rich seed on the better soils, while the less demanding barley was favored for the poorer soils.”29 At the same time, crops that are considered pure may also contain a mixture of different cereals depending on the previous crop sown in the field or contamination of the seed sown.30 The ubiquity analysis of the major crop plants at Tsoungiza (Fig. 14.46) indicates that barley is present in a greater percentage of samples than either einkorn or emmer wheat in all periods. This may be an indication that barley was grown more often, perhaps as a pure crop, or formed a greater percentage of a maslin. Jane Renfrew has suggested that barley became the principal crop in southern Greece in the Bronze Age because it was more tolerant than wheat of the dry conditions.31 At Tsoungiza, while einkorn wheat is fairly 24. Merriam 1918; Turner 1989. 25. Basgall 1987. 26. Vencl 1996. 27. Pullen 1992, and pp. 580–582, above. 28. Van der Veen and Fieller 1982. 29. Jones and Halstead 1995, p. 104. 30. Jones and Halstead 1995. 31. Renfrew 1966. AGRICULTURE AND SUBSISTENCE AT EH TSOUNGIZA 881 Percent Percent Occurrence Occurrence in in Samples Samples 90 90 Einkorn Einkorn 80 80 70 70 Emmer Emmer 60 60 Barley Barley 50 50 40 40 Lentil Lentil 30 30 Bitter Vetch Bitter 20 20 10 10 Fig Fig 00 FN (n = 5) EH I (n = 30) EH II (n = 71) EH III (n = 13) Figure 14.46. Ubiquity of selected crop species in all phases at Tsoungiza common across the site in most periods, emmer wheat is less well represented and both wheats are less ubiquitous than barley. These data may lend some support to Renfrew’s thesis. That early farmers made choices on the basis of available moisture can be seen in an Egyptian example. In letters of the Egyptian Hekanakht to his household in 2002 b.c., he instructs his family that grain land is to be planted with barley, unless the Nile is high, and then it should be planted with emmer.32 It is probable that such choices were made in Greece at this time as well, with careful planning of which crops to grow on what land depending on the previous year’s rainfall or flooding of the river. Since barley is more drought-tolerant than wheat, especially emmer, it would have been the grain of choice in dry years. If the environment generally was becoming drier throughout the Early Bronze Age, barley may have been the preferred grain in many regions of southern Greece. Unequivocal evidence for climate change in southern Greece during the Early Bronze Age is scant at best. A pollen core from the Kleonai Valley, approximately 5 km east of the Nemea Valley, is from the only palynological study undertaken in the region of Tsoungiza. The coring location is at the head of the Kleonai spring, situated within limestone topography much like the Nemea River. The Kleonai core sediments have been dated to between approximately 10,403 b.p. and 1820 b.p., corresponding to the period from the early Holocene into the Roman period.33 Within the Kleonai pollen core, Zone SKK4 reflects vegetation present between 3829 ± 50 b.p. to 3345 ± 70 b.p., corresponding to the Bronze Age.34 Because this zone is representative of the entire Bronze Age, it is impossible to correlate the pollen data with shifts in settlement, land use, or climate that occur specifically within the Early Bronze Age.35 In addition, species that are well represented archaeologically, such as Vitis (grape), are poorly represented in the pollen core.36 In general however, the Bronze Age pollen data indicate an increased presence of macchia, including Quercus coccifera type, Arbutus, Phylleria, Pistacia (pistachio), and Leguminosae (legumes), a slight increase in Pinus and Abies, the presence of deciduous species of Quercus, Tilia (lime), Ostrya (hop-hornbeam), Castanea (chestnut), Juglans, Platanus, and significant increases in Olea (olive) and Gramineae (grasses).37 In addition, the range of herbaceous species widens, indicating an “expansion of grassland communities” during the Bronze Age as a whole.38 32. Baer 1963. 33. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993. 34. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993, p. 353 and table 3. 35. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993, p. 353. 36. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993, p. 353. 37. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993, p. 353. 38. Atherden and Hall 1994. 882 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY Despite the absence of exact correlation between macrobotanical, settlement, and palynological data in the region, Zone SKK4 of the Kleonai pollen core suggests prehistoric changes in land use and/or climate in the region. In particular, the increase in cereal and grass pollen, olive, pine, and fir on the one hand, and the decline of deciduous oak on the other, indicate an increased intensity of land use from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age.39 The expansion of grassland and macchia may also be an indication of increased aridity and raises the question of whether an increase in aridity may have prompted an expansion of agriculture into previously uncultivated areas such as the hillsides. Without more detailed palynological or geomorphological data, however, it is not possible to answer this question. Aside from the prevalence of barley at Tsoungiza, lentils are also well represented across the site and occur in 25%–50% of the samples in each period. Bitter vetch is relatively rare at Tsoungiza, as are fava beans. Both of these species require processing to remove toxins prior to consumption and are thus somewhat more labor intensive than lentils. In addition, this processing, soaking and removal of the seed coat, makes them less susceptible to preservation through carbonization. That bitter vetch was grown as a crop in Bronze Age Greece has been demonstrated at Platia Magoula Zarkou, where one sample was a pure deposit of this species.40 Fava beans may also have been grown as a pure crop in Bronze Age Greece, according to evidence from Lerna in the EH II deposits41 and the EBA samples from Skoteini Cave.42 Whether cereals or legumes, most crops must undergo a variety of processing steps in order for the seed to be usable as a food source. Much has been written in recent years about crop-processing activities related to hulled cereals, based on ethnographic research, and we now have a reasonably good idea of the basic steps and resulting by-products that may occur on archaeological sites.43 These are illustrated in Figure 14.47, and it can be seen that there are several points at which the by-products may become charred, either deliberately or accidentally, and thus be preserved. In examining the contents of the pits and other contexts from EH Tsoungiza, we attempted to assess the nature of the plant remains in terms of the possible by-products of crop processing. Here again we were hindered by sample size and the difficulty of identifying many of the wild, possibly weed, seeds to the species level. On a very basic level, we can conclude that many of the samples do contain by-products of crop processing such as chaff, and seeds of genera that include weedy species that are common agricultural weeds. Identification of the specific step in the processing, however, is much more difficult because all deposits also contain a number of seeds, notably fig but also other plants, that cannot be considered field weeds (e.g., Najus, pistachio, apple/Sorbus). In addition, the overall paucity of “weed” seeds precludes the possibility of any statistical analyses such as have been conducted by Jones.44 According to the categorization of by-products from coarse and fine sieving suggested by Jones, possible weed seeds from both processes are present in samples from Tsoungiza, and are mixed in those deposits in which they do occur. There is no clear evidence for the deposition from any particular processing step, and we must conclude that the deposits sampled represent mixed refuse from several sources. The Agricultural Calendar It is likely that the cereals were sown in the autumn after the beginning of the rains, when the ground could be easily worked. Barley and legumes could have been sown in the spring. It is customary today to rotate cereal and legume crops, as well as to fallow some of the fields 39. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993, p. 355. 40. Jones and Halstead 1993. 41. Hopf 1961. 42. Mangafa 1993. 43. Hillman 1981, 1984; Jones 1984, 1987, 1990; Jones et al. 2000. 44. Jones 1984, 1987. AGRICULTURE AND SUBSISTENCE AT EH TSOUNGIZA 883 Figure 14.47. Crop-processing steps for hulled cereals. After Hillman 1981, 1984; Jones 1984 so as not to deplete the soil. According to the geomorphologic study of the Nemea Valley,45 the valley was marshy or swampy in some areas due to slow drainage. These very wet areas would not have been suitable for the cultivation of cereals and legumes, but the edges of the alluvial plain and the lower slopes of the hills (Profitis Ilias and Pharmakas) would have been better drained. In the lower areas that retained more moisture, vines would have done well, although there is no clear evidence for cultivation of this plant in the Early Helladic period due to an overlap in the size range of domesticated and wild grapes46 and the difficulties of distinguishing the two with a small sample. Collection of fruits and nuts would have taken place primarily in the late summer and autumn. There may have been other resources collected in the winter for which we have no evidence, such as a variety of leafy greens of the Compositae and other families, and some roots and tubers of plants such as sedges or rushes that would have grown on the edge of the river or in marshy areas in the valley. Y ield The amount of any crop produced at a given place or time is dependent on a variety of factors. Yield may vary considerably depending on climatic conditions, soil fertility, drainage and preparation, method of sowing, and weeding. The extrapolation of yields in a prehistoric context from modern or recent figures for yields, even when the crops are grown under “traditional” regimes, is at best highly speculative. Einkorn and emmer wheat are still grown today in parts of the Near East and Europe, as well as on experimental farms such as Butzer in England and in Jalés, France. Thus, figures are available for crop yields in given years, and Table 14.11 gives some idea of the amount of product that might be expected from 45. Wright 1990. 46. Hansen 1988. 884 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY TABLE 14.11. MODERN COMPARATIVE DATA FOR POTENTIAL YIELD OF CROPS AT TSOUNGIZA Crop Sowing Rate (Kg/Ha) Einkorn 67.5 Einkorn 411 Emmer 63 Two-row barley 50 Lentil Bitter vetch Yield (Kg/Ha) Place 1,571 France Willcox 1999, p. 114 692 France Willcox 1999, p. 114 England Reynolds 1999, p. 269 410 Turkey Hillman 1973, p. 237 70 400 Turkey Hillman 1973, p. 237 70 700 Turkey Hillman 1973, p. 237 170 1,500 Turkey Hillman 1973, p. 237 Grass pea 70 900 Turkey Hillman 1973, p. 237 Chickpea 30 250 Turkey Hillman 1973, p. 237 Common vetch 1,730–2,480 Reference the primary crops identified at Tsoungiza. A yield of 410–2,480 kg/ha of grain (emmer, einkorn, barley) is possible, depending on the type of cereal, amount sown, soil, and climate conditions. The yields at EH Tsoungiza were more likely on the lower end of this range (410–692 kg/ha) than the very high rates obtained at Little Butzer Farm in England, where climate conditions are considerably different. In addition, the method of sowing has a significant effect on the yield of a crop. According to Sigaut, “broadcast sowing yields ca. 4–10:1 (kg harvested:kg sown), while hand sowing, use of a seed drill or dibble stick produces a yield of 50–150:1.”47 Broadcast sowing is less labor intensive than using a seed drill or dibble stick, but also much less productive relative to the amount sown, due to loss of seed to birds or other factors, as it is not planted and covered. We do not know how the crops in the Nemea Valley were sown, so obtaining an accurate estimate of yield is not possible. From tomb paintings we know that the Egyptians broadcast their seed, whereas a seed drill was used in Mesopotamia.48 A clay figure of a plowing scene from Cyprus shows two people with some sort of container held between them, perhaps indicating the broadcasting of seed, so both methods were known in the eastern Mediterranean at this time.49 The weather conditions during any given year can also have a dramatic affect on the crops, even on a microscale. Sudden and severe storms near harvest time can wipe out an entire crop. This can happen in one part of a region while an area a few kilometers distant is not touched by the storms.50 Drought in a single year or over a number of years can destroy the crops. Yet it is also possible to have “bumper” crops in a given year as a result of excellent growing conditions, good weather, or extraordinary seed. Neither type of result is archaeologically discernible at Tsoungiza, as the plant remains we are examining were deposited over time in the different areas of the site and rarely represent a single year’s harvest. At Tsoungiza, the paucity of remains overall precludes the possibility of discussing whether the crops were grown separately or as maslin, let alone whether there were good or bad yields. The ubiquity studies done for the Tsoungiza remains are an attempt to overcome this limitation by looking at how well represented across the site the different plants are as a measure of how common they were at the time of occupation. The assumption is that the more common the plant, the more likely it was a primary resource. 47. Sigaut 1999, p. 279. 48. Singer, Holmyard, and Hall 1954. 49. Dikaios 1940. 50. Hansen 1988. AGRICULTURE AND SUBSISTENCE AT EH TSOUNGIZA 885 The method of recording yield also varies, often being expressed in mass per unit of area (e.g., kg/ha, kg/dönum), but also in volume per unit of area (bushels/acre). Several factors need to be considered when using these measurements, however. The way a particular bushel basket is filled or the moisture content of the grain when weighed can affect the results. Whether cleaned, fully dehusked grain or an only partially processed crop is being measured will also skew the measurements. Sigaut notes that “until the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries our ancestors tended, however, to think in terms of a weight yield for grain sown versus that harvested (5 for 1, 12 for 1).”51 In Table 14.11 the results of various studies are recorded in kilograms of cleaned but not dehusked grain per hectare. In light of all of these caveats, can we say anything useful about the potential quantity of cereals and legumes that could have been produced at EH Tsoungiza and whether those resources would have been sufficient for the people living there? Geological studies of the region indicate swampy areas were just north of the site, but well-drained arable land would have been available to the west and southwest. A rough estimate of that area would be 150 ha. If crop rotation was practiced, perhaps as much as half of the land was fallow at any time, so that roughly 75 ha might have been cultivated. If the plow was in use, then more marginal lands also could have been brought under cultivation. In the case of wheat, if we use a figure of 500 kg/ha as the average productivity of Tsoungiza fields in the Early Helladic period, then 37,500 kg could have been produced on 75 ha. If we use a figure of 400 kg/ha for barley, then 30,000 kg might have been possible if all of the nonfallow land was planted in this crop. These are maximum figures, since not all of the land would have been used for a single crop and the cereals may have been grown as maslin. Nonetheless, it gives us some idea of whether the available land could support the people living at Tsoungiza in the Early Helladic period. In Turkey, a caloric intake of 3,100 calories/day, 80% of which was from wheat, required 320 kg/person/year.52 Van Wersch notes that in Messenia the consumption of cereals was between 305 and 360 liters/person/year with a diet of 70% barley and 30% wheat.53 This is the equivalent of between 122 kg and 180 kg/person/year. These figures suggest that about 100 people could have been supported by the wheat or barley crops at Tsoungiza at one time, but it seems unlikely that the population would have been nearly that large. If we estimate the average population size in EH Tsoungiza to have been about 200 people, with a requirement of 300 kg/person/year of grain, then 60,000 kg of grain would have been required, not including that used as seed for the next year’s crop. In a good year on good land, this might require sowing about 120 ha in cereals. If there were only 150 ha of arable land available, then leaving half of this fallow each year would not have been a viable option. Less desirable land may have been cultivated in barley, which is less demanding than wheat. Alternatively, there may have been little or no fallowing of the land. From the plant remains recovered from Tsoungiza it is not possible to determine if monocrops of each of the legumes were grown, nor if any would have been the sole legume crop in a given year. Even if they were grown as separate crops, as Jones points out, “the pulses, which share an early harvest date and more or less scrambling growth habit, tend to contaminate each other,”54 so they probably would have been harvested together. We also do not know if any of the legumes or other crops could have been grown as fodder rather than food for humans. Today, legumes such as common vetch and grass pea are grown in Greece as fodder.55 If fodder crops were grown, then the amount of land available for other crops would have been reduced. 51. Sigaut 1999, p. 275. 52. Hillman 1973. 53. Van Wersch 1972. 54. Jones and Halstead 1995, p. 112. 55. Jones and Halstead 1995, p. 103. 886 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY The use of the plow, as indicated by artifactual and osteological evidence from Tsoungiza,56 would have further extended the available cropland to the hill slopes surrounding the Nemea Valley. In other regions of the Argolid, this expansion has been shown to have resulted in large-scale erosion at the end of the Early Helladic period. It is interesting to note, however, that despite the use of the plow at Tsoungiza, the geomorphological evidence indicates that there was no period of major erosion in the Nemea Valley during the Bronze Age, unlike in the Southern Argolid and the Berbati Valley.57 Studies in these regions indicate that a major period of erosion took place at the end of the Early Bronze Age, and it has been postulated that it is related to the introduction of the plow and the clearing of hillsides for the cultivation of the olive. Lack of terracing or other conservation methods allowed a substantial amount of soil to be lost and resulted, in these areas, in the abandonment of the region in the Middle Bronze Age. If the area of cultivation did expand to the hillsides in the Nemea Valley as a result of the introduction of the plow, the results there were not the same as those seen in the Argolid, perhaps due to the small-scale nature of the farming practiced at Tsoungiza. Archaeobotanical support for this suggestion is seen in the consistently mixed nature of the botanical deposits, the absence of deposits of pure crops, and continued reliance on wild resources. Nor is it possible to state that the newly cleared and plowed areas were used for olive cultivation, as the paucity of olive remains from EH Tsoungiza allows no confirmation of olive cultivation at this time. The likelihood that farming at Tsoungiza was small-scale is further supported by the unspecialized nature of animal husbandry indicated by the faunal assemblage. In addition, the absence of erosional sequences in the Nemea Valley at this time, together with the absence of built facilities for crop storage, suggests that farming at a scale significantly above the level of subsistence was most likely not practiced. That Tsoungiza was abandoned for some time in the Middle Bronze Age is clear, but we cannot, with the available evidence, attribute this to the environmental degradation that has been suggested for other areas. CONCLUSIONS The analysis of the plant remains from Tsoungiza has provided us with a modest insight into the exploitation of the environment during the Final Neolithic period and the Early Bronze Age in southern Greece. Despite the paucity of material, it is possible to identify several cereal and legume crops, as well as fruits, nuts, and other wild plants that may have been utilized for food or other purposes. It appears that barley and lentils formed the staples in the diet, while emmer and einkorn wheat, fig, acorn, and various other wild plants provided additional resources. The data further suggest that farming, although extensive in area as suggested by the use of the plow, was most likely practiced on a small scale. Relatively few EBA sites have yielded plant remains, and we have tried to incorporate all those known to us in our discussion. We have seen that there are a few differences among sites, such as the presence of flax at Lerna where none exists at Tsoungiza. There are also a few similarities, particularly in the types of cereal and legume crops grown. Indeed, these crops continue to be the staple agricultural products throughout the later Bronze Age as well.58 The palaeoethnobotanical data, in particular the relative abundance of barley over wheat, may lend support to the hypothesis that in southern Greece a greater dependence on barley was a response to conditions that were drier than those found in northern Greece during the Bronze Age. These more arid conditions may also be reflected in the Kleonai pollen core. An 56. For artifacts, see Pullen 1992, and pp. 580–582, above; for osteological analyses, see Chap. 13. 57. Runnels and van Andel 1987; Jameson, Runnels, and van Andel 1994; Wells and Runnels 1996. 58. Hansen 2000. APPENDIX. SPECIES OF PLANT REMAINS FROM FN–EH III TSOUNGIZA 887 estimation of the amount of land needed to support the small EBA population at Tsoungiza and the amount available in the vicinity of the site suggest that sufficient arable resources were present, even if aridity increased and crop rotation was practiced. The introduction of the plow during this time would have further increased the amount of cultivatable land. Surveys of other areas of the Argolid have indicated that the relatively dense EBA settlement pattern changed due to extensive erosion brought on by both the expansion of farming to the hillsides, with the introduction of the plow, and the supposed cultivation of the olive. The geomorphological studies of the Nemea Valley do not show such an erosional phase, however, nor are the few fragments of olive an indication of olive cultivation. The palaeoethnobotanical evidence from Tsoungiza is insufficient to permit further analysis here, so it is only with additional remains from other EBA sites that we may be able to address better the issues and questions posed in this chapter. APPENDIX. SPECIES OF PLANT REMAINS FROM FN–EH III TSOUNGIZA Cereals Triticum monococcum ssp. monococcum, cultivated einkorn wheat (Fig. 14.48). Erect-growing cereal requiring climates with mild winters and an annual precipitation of between 508 and 762 mm; does best on welldrained, stiff, clay loams; does not do well on loose, sandy, or peaty soils or poorly drained soils. Most wheat grown in Europe is winter-sown and requires the cold winter period in order to reach full development.59 Figure 14.48. Triticum monococcum. Scale ca. 2:1 Triticum turgidum L. ssp. dicoccum (Schrank) Thell., emmer wheat (Fig. 14.49). Hulled cereal grown under cultivation. It is sown in October–November and harvested in May, though it can also be planted as late as March. It is very adaptable to a variety of soil conditions and is resistant to several diseases. Like einkorn, this cereal is generally winter-sown, on well-drained soil. It is a hardy annual that is still grown in some areas of Europe and the Near East today. Figure 14.49. Triticum dicoccum (left), Triticum dicoccum spiklet fork and glume base (right). Scale ca. 2:1 and 10:1, respectively 59. Renfrew 1973. 888 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY Figure 14.50. Hordeum distichum (left), Lens sp. (center), Pisum sp. (right). Scale ca. 2.5:1, ca. 3:1, ca. 5.1, respectively Figure 14.51. Vicia ervilia (left), Vicia faba (center), Vicia sp. (right). Scale ca. 5:1, ca. 2.5:1, and ca. 3:1, respectively Hordeum vulgare, hulled barley (Fig. 14.50 left). Both two- and six-row barley may be present at Tsoungiza, but it is not possible to determine this with certainty from the remains recovered. Barley grows well on fertile loam soils but can also survive on poorer, more saline or sandy sediment. It is more hardy than emmer wheat and will produce a crop under conditions in which wheat will fail. Legumes Cicer sp., chickpea. Lens sp., lentil (Fig. 14.50 center). Legume with domesticated and wild varieties. It requires a warm, frost-free climate for cultivation and is often spring-sown. It prefers well-drained sandy soils. Pisum sp., pea (Fig. 14.50 right). Hairless, tendril-climbing annual legume with compound leaves and red to purple flowers. The cultivated Pisum sativum requires a cool growing season and is often spring-sown. It is best suited to medium or slightly impoverished soils such as well-drained soils of limestone origin. Vicia ervilia, bitter vetch (Fig. 14.51 left). Cultivated legume today grown primarily as fodder crop. It thrives in cool temperate climates and survives as a winter crop in mild climates. It grows best on rich loam soils. Vicia faba, fava bean (Fig. 14.51 center). Winter and spring-sown legume. It is less tolerant of cold than some cereals. It prefers well-drained, stiff, clayey soils, but tolerates well-manured light soils if water retention is high enough. Vicia sp. (Fig. 14.51 right). Fruits and Nuts Ficus carica, fig (Fig. 14.52 left). Tree or shrub growing in well-watered places such as near springs or damp hollows. The fruits ripen in two stages, with the first ripening occurring in June and July, the second in August and September. Malus sylvestris Miller, apple, crab apple (Fig. 14.52 center). Erect, branching deciduous tree or shrub bearing pome fruits. The species is found in Mediterranean climates generally at higher altitudes with sufficient winter cooling and sunlight. Olea sp., olive. Branching erect tree or shrub reaching heights of 10 m. It occurs in maquis or garigue communities in habitats such as rocky hill slopes. The few fragmentary remains of olive pits at Tsoungiza preclude their identification as either wild Olea europaea var. sylvestris or domesticated Olea europaea var. europaea. Pistacia sp., pistachio. Anacardaceae. Shrub or small tree of which two species are known from Greece. Pistacia lentiscus is a typical element of maquis vegetation growing from sea level up to 200 m. Pistacia terebinthus is found on dry rocky slopes and hillsides as well as pine forest from sea level up to about 1,300 m. The fruit is a small bony nutlet covered with red to dark purple thin flesh. The few remains from Tsoungiza do not permit a more accurate identification. APPENDIX. SPECIES OF PLANT REMAINS FROM FN–EH III TSOUNGIZA 889 ca. 1:3 Figure 14.52. Ficus carica fruit fragments (left), Malus/Sorbus fruit interior (center left) and exterior (center right), Quercus sp. (right). Scale ca. 1:1 except as indicated Prunus amygdalus Batsch (Prunus dulcis [Miller] D. A. Webb), almond. Rosaceae. Small spiny tree that produces nuts in August. It is found on dry slopes, calcareous gorges, and in scrub or oak forest between 150 m and 1,800 m.60 Cf. Rubus sp., raspberry. Rosaceae. Erect, thorny, thick-growing perennial. It occurs in coniferous and deciduous forest and sets fruit from June through the autumn. Vitis vinifera, grape. Vitaceae. Woody climbing shrub with branching tendrils. Wild grapes are found in riparian forest and woodlands with sufficient moisture. It is not possible to determine if the few EH seeds from Tsoungiza are wild or domesticated. Quercus sp., oak (Fig. 14.52 right). Fagaceae. No nut shells or cupules from the acorns were recovered by Harland or though the flotation efforts of NVAP, so it is not possible to determine the species of oak represented here. The size of the carbonized nut meats (L. 0.020 m, W. 0.008 m) suggests that these are from a species such as Quercus aegilops. L. (Quercus macrolepis Kotschy), the valonia oak, a deciduous tree. The whole acorns of this plant measure up to 0.035 m long. This species is not found in the area today, although the pollen data reveal evidence of oak present during the Bronze Age.61 The oak wood charcoal from Tsoungiza is all of a deciduous type as well. Theophrastus (Hist. pl. 3.8.2) notes that the acorns of the valonia oak are the sweetest. Useful/Medicinal Plants Lathyrus sp., grasspea (Fig. 14.53) Climbing annual or perennial herbs found in dry grassland and in ruderal habitats. The seeds are used as food for humans or as animal fodder. They may be toxic to some humans if eaten in excess.62 Medicago sp., medick. Annual or perennial shrub or herb. Occurs in open habitats such as coastal areas, roadsides, cultivated fields, grasslands. The seeds and sprouts are edible. Cf. Hypericum sp., Saint-John’s-wort (Fig. 14.54). A low-growing herb or shrub found in rocky terrain in maquis, olive groves, vineyards, and depleted soils of cultivation or waste areas. Leaves, flowers, roots, and seeds used for a variety of medicinal purposes. Malva sp., mallow. Erect annual herb in arable fields, fallow fields, and roadways. The leaves and ripe fruit are edible. Figure 14.53. Lathyrus sp. (left), Lathyrus sativus (right). Scale ca. 5:1, ca. 3:1, respectively Figure 14.54. Hypericum sp. (left), Hypericum sp. seeds with adhering capsule fragment (right). Scale ca. 5:1 60. Davis 1972, p. 22. 61. Atherden, Hall, and Wright 1993. 62. Hansen 2000. 890 PALAEOETHNOBOTANY Weeds of Cereals Cf. Lolium sp., darnel, ryegrass. Gramineae. Annual grass common as a weed in wheat fields. Cf. Bromus sp., bromegrass. Gramineae. Erect, spreading annual winter grass prevalent in cereal crops, meadows, pastures, roadsides, and waste places. Phalaris sp., canary grass. Tufted temperate annual common in cultivated areas or waste land. Avena sp., oat. Gramineae. Annual grass often found in disturbed ground, cultivated fields, and maquis. It flowers in April or May. Plantago sp., plantain. Plantaginaceae. Annual or perennial herbs or shrubs found in moist fields or disturbed ground. There are a wide variety of species flowering between March and July. Water Plants Cf. Apium sp. One species, Apium nodiflorum (wild celery), grows by local springs in the vicinity of Nemea. It is a creeping perennial common on wet ground, in ditches, or by streams. It grows from sea level to 1,100 m and flowers between April and June. Schoenus sp. Perennial or annual of Cyperaceae family. Thickly tufted with thick tuberous roots, it grows in marshy areas and stream sides in fresh or saltwater. Najus sp., naiad. Najaceae. Submerged annual, fresh-water plant that grows in stagnant or slow-flowing water. It flowers between June and September. Carex sp. Cyperaceae. Many species occur in Greece. They are found mostly in marshy or semi-marshy places. The stems can be used for straw to make mats or other woven items. Scirpus sp., sedge. Cyperaceae. Grows in damp and marshy areas and flowers between March and September, depending on the species. The stems can be used like those of Carex species. The tubers are edible. Other Wild Plants Adonis sp., pheasant’s eye. Ranunculaceae. Annual or perennial herb. Found on calcareous, rocky ground. It flowers from April to June. Cf. Alchemilla sp. Rosaceae. Perennial herb. They bloom from June to August. Most species grow in high elevations and cold climates, and can also be found in damp places. Cf. Amaranthus sp., amaranth. Amaranthaceae. Perennial herb or small shrub family that bears indehiscent fruits from July to September. It is a ruderal found at the edges of cultivated fields, fallow, or abandoned fields. Cf. Anchusa sp., alkanet. Ruderal favoring cultivated ground, vineyards. Arum sp. Araceae. Found on margins of cultivated ground, rocky hillsides, and margins of streams between sea level and 1,000 m. It flowers between March and May. Astragalus sp., milk vetch. Leguminosae. Annual or perennial herbs or shrubs. The large number of species (ca. 2,000) grow in a wide variety of habitats. A number of species yield tragacanth, a gum used for a number of purposes. Cf. Atriplex sp., saltbrush. Chenopodiaceae. Annual small shrub growing on disturbed ground, waste places. Cf. Beta sp., beet. Chenopodiaceae. Wild beets are annual or perennial herbs that grow in disturbed ground and sandy areas. They flower from September to April. Cf. Chenopodium sp. Chenopodiaceae. Found in ruderal places and as weeds of cultivated ground. Cirsium sp., thistle. Perennial or biennial herbs with prickly stems and leaves. Common in marshy environments, particularly in granite and schist soils. Also ruderal, commonly occurring in dumps, pastures, orchards, footpaths, and roads. The roots, leaves, stems, and stalks are edible raw or cooked. Cf. Cucumis sp., cucumber or melon. Cucurbitaceae. Annual or perennial plant with fleshy fruit. Cf. Echium sp., bugloss. Hairy biennial found in stony and sandy areas, roadsides, waste ground, and fallow fields. It flowers from March to June. Cf. Erodium sp., storksbill. Herbaceous winter annuals found in sandy areas, waste land, and cultivated fields. The leaves are edible. Filago sp. Compositae. Annual herb found on dry, rocky slopes, waste ground, sandy fields and vineyards from sea level to 1,650 m. It flowers between March and June. Cf. Fumaria sp., fumitory. Fumariaceae. Large annual climber common in stony areas, walls, and cultivated ground. Galeopsis sp., nettle. Labiatae. Annual herb generally occurring as a weed in cultivated fields, dumps, or paths. Some species are also found in open habitats, river gravels, and clearings in woodland. Galium sp., bedstraw. Rubiaceae. Herbaceous annual. A common weed colonizing ruderal, fallow, and cultivated habitats in full sun and partial shade. APPENDIX. SPECIES OF PLANT REMAINS FROM FN–EH III TSOUNGIZA 891 Figure 14.55. Scrophularia sp. Scale ca. 5:1 Figure 14.56. Unidentified seeds and plant parts. Scale ca. 5:1 Lamium sp., deadnettle. Labiatae. Annual or perennial herbs found in cultivated and fallow fields, vineyards, waste ground, field margins, and irrigation canals from sea level to 1,500 m. Cf. Lapsana sp., nipplewort. Compositae. Annual. Common habitats include disturbed areas such as roadsides and field margins, streamsides, and rocky slopes from 100 m to 200 m. It flowers from March to May and the fruit ripens in July. Lithospermum arvense L. and Lithospermum sp., gromwell. Boraginaceae. Perennial creeping shrub. It has narrow to lanceolate hirsute leaves with erect flowering stems ca. 0.001–0.004 m in length, with red to blue flowers in compact heads; the nuts are shiny. Habitats are shady stony places, hedges, woods, especially on calcareous soils. Flowers bloom April to July depending on species. Uses not reported. Melissa sp., balm. Labiatae. Robust, erect, perennial herb 0.08–1.20 m high. It grows in damp thickets and stream sides from sea level to 1,375 m and flowers between May and September. Myosotis sp., forget-me-not. Boraginaceae. Perennial or annual herb that grows in damp areas, woods, or hillsides, depending on the species. Polygonum sp., knotweed. Polygonaceae. Annual or perennial herb or shrub often found in damp or wet areas, fields, and disturbed ground. It flowers between May and September, depending on the species. Cf. Potentilla sp., creeping cinquefoil. Rosaceae. Erect perennial or annual with thick roots and indehiscent capsule fruits with domed and ridged surface. Generally on rough soil, stream banks, cultivated areas, and marshy fields. Cf. Ruppia sp., ditchgrass. Potamogetonaceae. Submerged aquatic perennial found in brackish pools and ditches. Cf. Scorpiurus sp. Leguminosae. Annual herb found in fields. It flowers between April and May. Cf. Scrophularia sp., figwort (Fig. 14.55). Scrophulariaceae. Biennial herbs of waste ground, rocky, or sandy areas. They flower between March and August, depending on the species. Cf. Solanum sp., nightshade family. Solonaceae. Annual or perennial herb, depending on the species, that flowers all year. It is found in waste places and disturbed ground. Stachys sp., mint family. Labiatae. Annual or perennial herbs or shrublets found along streams, in damp thickets, dry fields, and woods, depending on the species. Most species flower between June and September. Trifolium sp. L., clover. Leguminosae. Biennial or perennial herb. It grows erect, up to 0.60 m in height with branching, hirsute stems and alternate ovobate leaves in threes. The flowers are short and tightly clustered, and the fruits are small pods with one seed. It flowers in pastures and fields from April to October. Cf. Veronica sp., speedwell. Scrophulariaceae. Creeping annual herb or shrub 0.10–0.60 m long with broad, lobate leaves and small white flowers emanating from leaf axils, and producing hirsute fruits. It is a typical weed of agricultural areas, walls, rocks in a Mediterranean climate. The flowers bloom February to April. Unidentified remains (Fig. 14.56). Several seeds and other plant parts were recovered. Among these are pedicels, possibly from grapes, thorns, and other small stems.