Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2015; 5(1): 79-84 79 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apjtb Document heading doi: 10.1016/S2221-1691(15)30174-X © 2015 by the Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. All rights reserved. Adansonia digitata L. (baobab): a review of traditional information and taxonomic description Jitin Rahul1*, Manish Kumar Jain1, Shishu Pal Singh2, Rakesh Kant Kamal1, Anuradha1, Aliya Naz1, Anup Kumar Gupta1, Sujeet Kumar Mrityunjay1 1 Centre of Mining Environment, Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad-826004, Jharkhand, India 2 Department of Botany, Dayanand Brajendra Swarup College, Kanpur-208006, Uttar Pradesh, India A RT I C L E I N F O A B S T R AC T Article history: Adansonia digitata L. (Malvaceae) is commonly known as baobab tree native to Africa. Baobab is a multi-purpose tree which offers protection and provides food, clothing and medicine as well as raw material for many useful items. The fruit pulp, seeds, leaves, flowers, roots, and bark of baobab are edible and they have been studied by scientists for their useful properties. The fruit pulp have very high vitamin C, calcium, phosphorus, carbohydrates, fibers, potassium, proteins and lipids content, which can be used in seasoning as an appetizer and also make juices. Seeds contain appreciable quantities of phosphorus, magnesium, zinc, sodium, iron, manganese, whereas they have high levels of lysine, thiamine, calcium and iron. Baobab has numerous biological properties including antimicrobial, anti-malarial, diarrhoea, anaemia, asthma, antiviral, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activities amongst others. Phytochemical investigation revealed the presence of flavonoids, phytosterols, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals. The review summarizes the information on various aspects of traditional information, taxonomic description, medicinal properties and importantly nutritional value. Received 20 Sep 2014 Received in revised form 10 Oct 2014 Accepted 5 Nov 2014 Available online 10 Nov 2014 Keywords: Adansonia digitata Baobab Traditional information Taxonomic description 1. Introduction African baobab is a very long-lived tree with multipurpose uses. It is said that some trees are over 1 000 years old. Earlier attempts to describe African Baobab on the basis of fruit difference are not accepted till now as they are not grown agronomically or domesticatedly[1,2]. Adansonia digitata (A. digitata) is commonly found in the thorn woodlands of African savannahs, which tend to be at low altitudes with 4-10 dry months per year. It tends to grow as solitary individuals, though it can be found in small groups depending on the soil type. It is not found in areas where sand is deep. It is sensitive to water logging and frost. All locations where the tree is found are arid or semi-arid[3]. Adansonia digitata (Malvaceae) (A. digitata) is a majestic tree revered in Africa for its medicinal and nutritional value. The plant parts are used to *Corresponding author: Rahul Jitin, Research Scholar, Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India. Tel: +91-7549008609 E-mail: jitin.nature@gmail.com Foundation Project: Supported by University Grant Commission, New Delhi, India [Grant No. F. 14-2(SC)/2010 (SA-III)]. treat various ailments such as diarrhoea, malaria and microbial infections[4]. Several plant parts have interesting anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, and baobab has been used extensively since ancient times in traditional medicine[5]. The seeds, leaves, roots, flowers, fruit pulp and bark of baobab are edible. Baobab leaves are used in the preparation of soup. Seeds are used as a thickening agent in soups, but they can be fermented and used as a flavoring agent or roasted and eaten as snacks[6]. The flora from Tikamgarh District in Bundelkhand Region has immense pharmaceutical and commercial potential[7]. India has about more than 45 000 plants species and among them several thousand are claimed to possess medicinal properties[8]. Medicinal plants play an important role in providing knowledge to the researchers in the field of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology[9]. Baobab trees are indigenous to Africa. The trees can tolerant to high temperatures and long spans of drought, and are grown for their sour fruit and leaves. The fruit consists of pulp and large seeds embedded in the dry acidic pulp and shell. The leaves are used to make soup, and the pulp is used to make beverage and for food preparation[10,11]. In recent years, due to industry seeks natural alternatives, demand for seed oils as ingredients for food, cosmetics 80 Jitin Rahul et al./Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2015; 5(1): 79-84 and biofuel has been greatly increased. A study on biodiesel production and fuel properties was conducted by Modiba et al[12]. The seeds are pressed for oil, but the by-product baobab oilseed meal is typically underutilized. Most of previous studies on the baobab fruit have focused on the seed oil[13]. The total land area of Orchha wild life sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh is about 40-45 km2, which is very rich in medicinal plant species[14]. 2. A. digitata The baobab tree (Figure 1), and its related species belong to the family of Malvaceae and the genus Adansonia. The tribe, which is pantropical, includes Bombax and Ceiba producing fruit fibres used as kapok. The family includes about 30 genera, 6 tribes and about 250 species[2]. A number of these species are used locally for leaves, wood, fruits, seeds or gum. The African baobab (A. digitata) occurs naturally in most countries of Sahara as a scattered tree in the savannah, and is also present in human habitation. In the past, some ethnic groups in Mali such as the Dogon, Kagolo and Bambara used to take seedlings from the wild to plant them around their villages[15]. The tree has been introduced in many countries used as an ornamental plant. It is also known as the dead-rat tree (from the appearance of the fruits), monkey-bread tree (the dry fruit as food for monkeys), upside-down tree (the bare branches looked like roots) and cream of tartar tree (the acidic taste of the fruits)[16]. Figure 1. The A. digitata in central part of India, region of Bundelkhand (Orchha, Madhya Pradesh, India). 3. Taxonomic description and habitat Kingdom: Plantae; Phylum: Tracheophyta; Class: Magnoliopsida; Order: Malvales; Family: Malvaceae; Genus: Adansonia; Species: digitata; Botanical name: A. digitata; English name: Baobab[17]. Synonyms: Adansonia bahobab L. (synonym), Adansonia baobab Gaert. (synonym), A. digitata var. congolensis A. Chev. (synonym), Adansonia somalensis Chiov. (synonym), Adansonia sphaerocarpa A. Chevall. (synonym), Adansonia sulcata A. Chevalier (synonym), Baobabus digitata Kuntze (synonym)[18]. A. digitata is a massive deciduous tree, up to 20-30 m tall with a diameter up to 2-10 m at adult age. The trunk is often of vast girth. The bark is smooth, reddish brown to grey, soft and possesses longitudinal fibers. A. digitata is highly branched. A. digitata produces an extensive lateral root system until 50 m from the trunk. The roots tips are often in the form of tubers. But the main roots of old trees are relatively shallow and rarely extend beyond 2 m depth. Therefore they are very sensitive to strong winds and can be uprooted by storm[19]. Leaves of young trees are usually simple. Adult trees begin each season by producing simple leaves followed by 2-3-leaflets leaves; mature leaves (20 cm diameter with about 5 to 9 leaflets) appear later. The inflorescence of baobabs consists of a single flower, situated in the axils of leaves near the tips of reproductive branches. The flowers are white, large, pendulous, solitary or paired in the leaf axils, showy[20]. Flowering begins about the end of dry season or just before the first rains; often when the first leaves appear. The flowers open in late afternoon and fall the next day at dawn. The flowers emit a sulfur fragrance that attracts particularly the bats which play the role of pollinators[18]. The history of known references to African baobab is well documented[2]. The binomial name of A. digitata was given by Linnaeus, the generic name honouring Michel Adanson who had been to Senegal in the eighteenth century to describe baobab[21]. Taxonomic details of A. digitata are shown in Table 1 and explanation is given below. The African baobab is named a very large number of local names. A selection of important ones is shown in Table 2. Table 1 Nomenclature of Adansonia species (after Baum, 1995)[2]. Genus Species Adansonia A. digitata L. Adansonia grandidieri Brevitubae Baill. Hochreutiner Adansonia suarezansis H. Perrier Adansonia gibbosa (A. Cunn.) Guymer ex D. Baum Adansonia rubrostipa Longitubae Jum. & H. Perrier Hochreutiner Adansonia madagascarensis Baill. Adansonia za Baill. Adansonia perrieri Capuron Source: Sidibe and Williams (2002)[16]. Synonyms Area Adansonia baobab L. (1763), Adansonia baobab Gaertn. (1791), Adansonia sphaerocarpa A. Chev. (1901), Adansonia sulcata A. Chev. (1906), Adansonia Widespread in Africa digitata var. congolensis A. Chev. (1906) References [42] Restricted to Madagascar [43] Restricted to Madagascar [44] Adansonia gregori Mueller (1857), Adansonia rupestris W. Saville-Kent (1897), Adansonia stanburyana Hochreutiner (1908) Restricted to NW Australia Adansonia fony Baill. ex H. Perrier (1952) Restricted to Madagascar Adansonia bernieri Baill. ex Poisson(1912) Restricted to Madagascar [46] Adansonia bozy Jum. & H. Perrier, Adansonia alba Jum & H. Perrier Restricted to Madagascar [47] Restricted to Madagascar [1] [45] 81 Jitin Rahul et al./Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2015; 5(1): 79-84 Table 2 Common names for African baobab. Language English French Hindi Tamil Gujarati Telegu Common name Baobab, monkey bread tree, Ethiopian sour gourd, cream of tartar tree, senegal calabash (fruit), upside-down tree Baobab, pain de singe (fruit), arbre aux calebasses, arbre de mille ans, calebassier du Senégal Gorakh-imli, hathi-khatiyan Papparappuli, anaipuliya-marum Sumpura Brahma-mlinka, seemasinta Other local names can be found in Burkill, 1985 and Von Maydell, 1986[48,49]. Table 3 Traditional medicinal uses of A. digitata in different types of aliments[4]. Aliments Diarrhoea, fever, inflammation, kidney and bladder diseases, blood clearing, asthma Malaria, fever Toothache, gingivitis Diaphoretic, fever remedy Diaphoretic, kidney and bladder diseases, asthma, insect bites Fever, diarrhoea Microbial diseases Anaemia Coughs Wound healing Part(s) used Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Seeds Fruits Bark Powdered seeds Stem bark Preparation Decoction, infusion Mixed with water Decoction Decoction Decoction Mixed with water Decoction Aqueous extract Decoction Decoction 4. Traditional information sixteenth century[16]. The various parts of the plant (leaves, bark and seeds) are used as a panacea, that is, to treat almost any disease and specific documented uses include the treatment of malaria, tuberculosis, fever, microbial infections, diarrhoea, anaemia, dysentery, toothache, etc. (Table 3)[22,23-28]. The leaves and fruit pulp are used as febrifuge as well as an immune stimulant[27,29]. In India, it is reported that baobab pulp is used externally with buttermilk for the relief of diarrhea and dysentery, while the young leaves are crushed and used to treat painful swellings[16]. In some countries in West Africa, the leaves, fruit pulp and seeds are the main ingredients in sauces, porridges and beverages[27,30,31]. Recently, baobab has been referred to as a “super fruit” based on its nutritional profile (e.g. vitamin, fatty acid, mineral) [32] . The nutritional value of baobab is only briefly discussed since a comprehensive report on the nutritive aspects is already available[27,30]. The major interest in baobab products is as a result of its ascorbic acid and dietary fiber content. The level of vitamin C contained in fruit pulp is high and can range from 2.8 to 3 g/kg[33]. It was noted that baobab fruit pulp has very high vitamin C content (280–300 mg/100 g), which is seven to ten times more than oranges (51 mg/100 g)[34,35]. One study demonstrated that the consumption of 40 g of baobab pulp provided 100% of the recommended daily intake of vitamin C in pregnant women (19–30 years)[30]. The ascorbic acid content was evaluated in the fruit of A. digitata[36]; and it was found to contain 337 mg/100 g of ascorbic acid[37,38]. Sidibe and Williams recommended that baobab leaves should be stored as whole leaves rather than ground leaf powder in order to preserve the high vitamin content[16]. Although A. digitata is mostly regarded as a fruit-bearing forest tree, it is a multipurpose and widely-used species with medicinal properties, numerous food uses of various plant parts, and bark fibers that are used for a variety of purposes. Centuries ago the products were traded: it was well known in Cairo markets in the 4.1. Leaves of A. digitata References [24] [22] [25] [50] [51] [22] [52] [53] [22] [54] Leaves are 2-3-foliate at the start of the season and they are early deciduous, of which more mature ones are 5-7(-9)-foliate. Leaves are alternate at the ends of branches or occur on short spurs on the trunk. Leaves of young trees are often simple. Leaflets are sessile to shortly petiolulate with great variation in size. Overall mature leaf size may reach a diameter of 20 cm and the medial leaflet can be 5-15 ×2-7 cm, leaflet elliptic to ovate-elliptic with acuminate apex and decurrent base. Margins are entire and leaves are stellatepubescent beneath when young becoming glabrescent or glabrous. Stipules are early caducous, subulate or narrowly triangular, 2-5mm long, glabrous except for ciliate margins(Figure 2)[16]. Figure 2. Leaf of A. digitata. 82 Jitin Rahul et al./Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2015; 5(1): 79-84 The leaves of baobab tree are a staple for many populations in Africa, especially the central region of the continent[10,38]. During the rainy season when the baobab leaves are tender, people harvest a fresh batch of leaves. During the last month of the rainy season, leaves are harvested in great abundance and are dried for domestic use and for marketing during the dry season. The leaves are typically sun-dried and either stored as whole leaved or pounded and sieved into a fine powder[38]. Young leaves are widely used, cooked as spinach, and frequently dried, often powdered and used for sauces over porridges, thick gruels of grains, or boiled rice[16]. 4.2. Fruits pulp of A. digitata The seeds of A. digitata are uniformed and embedded in the pulp, the color is dark brown to reddish black with smooth testa (Figure 3). Seed kernels are widely used. They are eaten fresh, dry or ground and used in cooking. Kernels have an energy value of 1 803 kJ/100 g, approximately 50% higher than leaves[36]. The proximate mineral compositions of baobab seed shown in Table 5. The seed is a good source of phosphorus, calcium and magnesium. Seed oils are important sources of nutritional oils, industrial and pharmaceutical importance[41]. Table 5 Mineral contents of A. digitata seeds (μg/g dry weight). There is no doubt that baobab pulp is a valuable source of vitamin C. If an added value would be given to the pulp by improving its handling quality and storage stability by using adequate methods, this might can help to enhance the interest of pulp uses and thus, it can lead to a better organization of food chain in developing countries (Ethiopia, Nigeria, Tanzania, Kenya, Ghana and India). At present, the preservation of the pulp is beyond the control of population, which leads to undesirable losses of it. It is important to overcome problems in prolonging the shelf-life of the pulp in order to retain its nutritive value and sensorial properties. Bioavailability studies are necessary for a better appreciation of the contribution to human health since the dietary intake can never be fully utilized by the human body[39]. The fruit pulp has very high vitamin C content, almost ten times that of oranges (Table 4). It contains sugars but no starch and is rich in pectin. It can be dissolved in water or milk. The liquid is then used as a drink and sauce for food, a fermenting agent in local brewing, or as a substitute for cream of tartar in baking (Figure 3). Table 4 Analysis of baobab fruit pulp (mg/100 g)[34]. Constituent Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) Calcium Phosphorus Carbohydrates Soluble and insoluble dietary fibers Potassium Protein Lipids 4.3. Seeds of A. digitata Content (mg/100g) 280.00-300.00** 293.00** 96.00-118.00 75.60 52.00 2.31 2.30 0.27 **: Ascorbic acid compared with oranges of 51 mg/100 g and calcium compared with milk of 125 mg/100 g[35]. Mineral Phosphorus Calcium Magnesium Zinc Sodium Iron Manganese Content (μg/g dry weight) 6 140.0 3 950.0 3 520.0 25.7 19.6 18.3 10.6 Significant potassium and measurable copper were recorded by Arnold et al. (1985) and potassium by Odetokun (1996)[40,44,55]. 5. Conclusion A. digitata is a multipurpose tree species, mostly used for medicine, food, fodder and clothing as well as raw material for many useful items. The fruit of the baobab is the most important foodstuff. The fruit pulp is dry and used in cold and hot drinks. The fruit pulp can dissolve in water and milk, and the liquid is used as a drink and sauce for food as a fermentation agent in local brewing. The fruit pulp of baobab is very rich in vitamin C, calcium, phosphorus, carbohydrates and soluble and insoluble fibers. The worldwide demand of baobab has increased dramatically in more sectors, such as the medical industry, food industry and cosmetic industry. In reality, due to it was found to show interesting pharmacological properties, the whole plant is used for the multiple medicinal purpose in many parts of Africa as well as other states. I hope that the review will encourage researches towards better understanding and utilization of A. digitata. Conflict of interest statement We declare that we have no conflict of interest. Acknowledgements Figure 3. Fruit and seeds of A. digitata. Authors are thankful to the Centre of Mining Environment, Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India for providing facilities during preparation of this article. And it was funded by University Grant Commission, New Delhi, India (Rajiv Gandhi National FellowshipRGNF-JRF) [Grant No. F. 14-2(SC)/2010(SA-III)]. Jitin Rahul et al./Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2015; 5(1): 79-84 References 83 digitata) fruit and seed protein solubility. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2004; 59(1): 29-33. [1] Chevalier A. [The baobabs (Adansonia) in Africa continental]. Bulletin of the Botanical Society of France 1906; 53: 480-496. French. [14] Jitin R, Singh SP, Naz A. An ethnomedicinal survey of orchha wildlife sanctuary region of Tikamgarh District, Madhya Pradesh, India. J Bot [2] Baum DA. A systematic revision of Adansonia (Bombacaceae). Ann Res 2013; 4(1): 31-34. Mo Bot Gard 1995; 82: 440-470. [15] Sidibé M, Scheuring JF, Tembely D, Sidibé MM, Hofman P, Frigg M. [3] Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Owuor B, Mutua A. Adansonia digitata. Agroforestree database a tree species reference Baobab-homegrown vitamin C for Africa. Agroforestry Today 1996; 8(2): 13-15. and selection guide. Nairobi: International Centre for Research in Agroforestry; 2012. [16] Sidibe M, Williams JT. Baobab. Adansonia digitata L. Southampton: International Centre for Underutilised Crops University of [4] Kamatou GPP, Vermaak I, Viljoen AM. An updated review of Southampton; 2002. Adansonia digitata: a commercially important African tree. S Afri J Bot 2011; 77: 908-919. [17] Bosch CH, Sié K, Asafa BA. Adansonia digitata L. In: Grubben GJH, Denton OA, editors. PROTA 2: Vegetables/Légumes. [CD-Rom]. [5] De Caluwé E, Halamová K, Van Damme P. Adansonia digitata L.-a Wageningen: PROTA; 2004. review of traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. Afrika Focus 2010; 23: 11-51. [18] Wickens GE, Lowe P. The baobabs: Pachycauls of Africa, Madagascar and Australia. Berlin: Springer Verlag; 2008. [6] Kabore D, Sawadogo-Lingani H, Diawara B, Compaoré C, Dicko MH, Jakobsen M. A review of baobab (Adansonia digitata) products: effect of processing techniques, medicinal properties and uses. Afr J [19] Sidibe M, Williams JT. Baobab, Adansonia digitata. Southampton: International Centre for Underutilised Crops; 2002. Food Sci 2011; 5(16): 833-844. [20] Wickens GE. The baobab: Africa’s upside-down tree. Kew Bulletin [7] Verma RK. An ethnobotanical study of plants used for the treatment 1982; 37(2): 173-209. of livestock diseases in Tikamgarh District of Bundelkhand, Central India. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2014; 4(Suppl 1): S460-S467. [21] Adanson PM. [Description of a new genre called Baobab tree, found in Senegal]. Hist Acad Roy Sci (Paris), 1771, 1791: 218-243. French. [8] Taur DJ, Patil RY. Some medicinal plants with antiasthmatic potential: a current status. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2011; 1: 413-418. [22] Watt JM, Breyer-Brandwijk MG. The medicinal and poisonous plants of southern and Eastern Africa. 2nd ed. Edinburghand London: E. & [9] Sankaranarayanan S, Bamal P, Ramachandran J, Kalaichelvan PT, S. Livingstone Ltd.; 1962. Deccaramanl M, Vijayalakshimil M, et al. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by traditional users in Villupuram district of Tamil Nadu, India. J Med Plant Res 2010; 4(12): 1089-1101. [10] Yazzie D, VanderJagt DJ, Pastuszyn A, Okolo A, Glew RH. The amino acid and mineral content of baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) [23] Van Wyk BE, Gericke N. People’s plants: a guide to useful plants of Southern Africa. 1st ed. Pretoria: Briza Publications; 2000. [24] Brendler T, Gruenwald J, Jaenicke C. Herbal remedies. [CD-ROM]. Stuttgart: Medpharm GmbH Scientific Publishers; 2003. leaves. J Food Compost Anal 1994; 7: 189-193. [25] Tapsoba H, Deschamps JP. Use of medicinal plants for the treatment [11] Obizoba IC, Amaechi NA. The effect of processing methods on the of oral diseases in Burkina Faso. J Ethnopharmcol 2006; 104: 68-78. chemical composition of baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) pulp and seed. Ecol Food Nutr 1993; 29: 199-205. [26] Wickens GE, Lowe P. The baobabs: pachycauls of Africa, Madagascar and Australia. Berlin: Springer; 2008. [12] Modiba E, Osifo P, Rutto H. Biodiesel production from baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) seed kernel oil and its fuel properties. Ind Crops Prod 2014; 59: 50-54. [27] De Caluwé, E, Halamová K, Van Damme P. Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.): a review of traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. In: Juliani RH, Simon JE, Ho CT, Editors. African [13] Osman MA. Chemical and nutrient analysis of baobab (Adansonia natural plant products: new discoveries and challenges in chemistry 84 Jitin Rahul et al./Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2015; 5(1): 79-84 and quality. Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society; 2009, p. international conference on economic plants for arid lands held in the 51-84. Jodrell Laboratory. Kew: Royao; 1985, p. 69-86. [28] Nguta JM, Mbaria JM, Gakuya DW, Gathumbi PK, Kiama SG. Anti [41] Nzikou JM, Mvoula-Tsiéri M, Pambou-Tobi NPG, Ndangui CB, malarial herbal remedies of Msambweni, Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol Kimbonguila A, Silou T, et al. Proximate composition and physico- 2010; 128: 424-432. chemical characteristics of seed and seed oil from Terminalia catappa L and the kinetics of degradation of the oil during heating. Aust J [29] El-Rawy EM, Gergis SM, Bazaid S, El-Mougy SA. The immuno Basic Appl Sci 2010; 4(7): 2039-2047. stimulant effect of Adansonia digitata on the immune response of chicken vaccinated with avian cholera vaccine. J Egypt Vet Med Assoc 1997; 57: 959-970. [42] Burkill HM. The useful plants of west tropical Africa. Richmond: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; 1985. [30] Chadare FJ, Linnemann AR, Hounhouigan JD, Nout MJ, Van Boekel [43] von Maydell HJ. Trees and shrubs of the sahel: their characteristics MA. Baobab food products: a review on their composition and and uses. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft f̈r Technische nutritional value. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2009; 49: 254-274. Zusammenarbeit; 1986. [31] Yusha’u M, Hamza MM, Abdullahi N. Antibacterial activity of [44] Odetokun SM. The nutritive value of baobab fruit (Adansonia Adansonia digitata stem bark extracts on some clinical bacterial digitata). Rivista Italiana delle Sostanze Grasse 1996; 73(8): 371- isolates. Int J Biomed Health Sci 2010; 6: 129-135. 337. [32] Gruenwald J. Novel botanical ingredients for beverages. Clin Dermatol 2009; 27: 210-216. [45] Hostettmann K, Schaller F. Antimicrobial diterpenes. United States patent No 5929124. 2000. [33] Vertuani S, Braccioli E, Buzzoni V, Manfredini S. Antioxidant capacity [46] Inngjerdingen K, Nergård CS, Diallo D, Mounkoro PP, Paulsen BS. of Adansonia digitata fruit pulp and leaves. Acta Phytotherapeutica An ethnopharmacological survey of plants used for wounds healing in 2002; 5: 2-7. Dogoland, Mali, West Africa. J Ethnopharmacol 2004; 92: 233-244. [34] Manfredini S, Vertuani S, Buzzoni V. Adansonia digitata. II baobab farmacista. Integr Nutr 2002; 5(4): 25-29. [47] Linnaeus C. Systema naturae. 10th ed. Stockholm: Laurentii Salvii; 1759. [35] Täufel A, Ternes W, Tunger L, Zobel M. Lebensmittel-lexikon, 3. [48] Schumann, K. Chlaenaceae. In: Engler A, Prantl K, editors. Die Aufl., 1500 S., Behr’s Verlag, Hamburg, 1993, gebunden DM 229,– natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Leipzig: W. Engelmann; 1893, p. 168- ISBN-3-860022-122-1. J Prakt Chem 1993; 337: 78. 175. [36] Diop PA, Franck D, Grimm P, Hasselmann C. High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of vitamin C in fresh fruits from [49] Perrier de la Bâthie H. [Adansonia of Madagascar. Keys and diagnoses]. Notul Syst (Paris) 1952; 14: 300-304. French. West Africa. J Food Compost Anal 1988; 1: 265-269. [50] Abbiw DK. Useful plants of Ghana. London: Intermediate Technology [37] Eromosele IC, Eromosele CO, Kuzhkuzha DM. Evaluation of mineral Publications & the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; 1990. elements and ascorbic acid contents in fruits of some wild plants. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 1991; 41: 151-154. [51] Wickens GE. The baobab: Africa’s upside-down tree. Kew Bull 1982; 37: 173-209. [38] Gebauer J, El-Siddig K, Ebert G. Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.): a review on a multipurpose tree with promising future in Sudan. Gartenbauwissenschaft 2002; 67: 155-160. [39] Chadare FJ. Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) foods from Benin: composition, processing and quality. Wageningen: Wageningen [52] Jumelle H, Perrier de la Bathie H. [Baobabs northwest of Madagascar]. Les Matières Grasses; 1909. French. [53] Adesanya SA, Idowu, TB, Elujoba AA. Antisickling activity of Adansonia digitata. Planta Med 1988; 54: 374. University; 2010. [54] Baillon HE. Adansonia madagascariensis. Adansonia 1876; 11: 251. [40] Arnold TH, Wells MJ, Wehmeyer AS. Koisan food plants: taxa with potential for future economic exploitation. In: Wickens GE, Goodin JR, Field DV, editors. Plants for arid lands: proceedings of the Kew [55] Baillon HE. [The baobab in Madagascar]. Bull Mem-Soc Linn (Paris) 1890; 1: 844-846. French.