The Implementation of Confucianism in Qing China and Tokugawa Japan
Since Han China declared itself a Confucian state at its conception and maintained that status for more than four centuries, many other states in East Asia, and later Chinese dynasties, sought to implement the same philosophy in their own governments. But how often did these nations actually adhere to Confucian philosophy? Would Confucius himself have even considered the Qing and the Tokugawa to be Confucian? This essay will argue that Qing China and Tokugawa Japan were both Confucian states, and would have been seen as such by Confucius.
Qing China exhibited many aspects that identify a Confucian state, from its rigorous examination system, to how it dealt with foreign powers and how it sought to change when faced with defeat. Firstly, the Chinese examination system, which began during the Han Dynasty, was tested on Confucian values. “The problems for this first day [of the exam] concerned three themes from the Four Books…the next morning the second round of problems was distributed, this time five questions on the Five Classics.”[1] It is important to note that these exams were used to test government officials in China, meaning that virtually everyone in the government had a robust knowledge on the teachings of Confucius. Perhaps these exams sustained through so many dynasties because they were an adequate method of testing the candidate’s understanding of the foundation of the government. In other words, their government was founded on Confucian values and teachings.
Furthermore, in Qing China’s dealings with foreign countries, the cultural core of Confucianism is still present. In Lin Zexu’s letter to Queen Victoria, he uses an examples that typifies Confucian values: “Suppose there were people from another country who carried opium to England, and seduced your people into…smoking it,” he writes, “certainly your honorable ruler would deeply hate it.”[2] This example shows the time-honored Confucian relationship between ruler and subject; Confucius believed that the ruler should be an almost paternal figure, looking out for the wellbeing of his citizens. Lin later writes, “Naturally you would not wish to give unto others what you yourself do not want,” again demonstrating the deep-rooted values that play into Chinese politics and government.[3]
Additionally, after China’s defeat in the Opium War, many Chinese politicians and intellectuals questioned the validity of continuing as they had for so long, and many believed that Westernizing would be the answer the China’s continuing defeat against Western powers. However, Feng Guifen and the self-strengthening movement believed incorporating Western science and technology into education while continuing to teach Confucianism was the most effective method to strengthen China. In describing a proposed school, he states that, “Westerners should be invited to teach them [students] the spoken and written languages of various nations, and famous Chinese teachers should also be engaged to teach them classics, history, and other subjects.”[4] While perhaps revolutionary for the time, Feng Guifen’s ideas about education are in no way anti-Confucian; in fact, they maintain the Confucian nature of the state. Feng later defends his assertions by saying,
“If we let Chinese ethics and famous [Confucian] teachings serve as an original foundation, and let them be supplemented by the methods used by various nations or the attainment of prosperity and strength, would it not be the best of all procedures?”[5]
Indeed, if Confucius had been able to read Feng’s ideas about China, he would have agreed that his own teachings could be supplemented with additional knowledge and teachings; that Confucianism was not the end all, be all. However, China was not the only place in East Asia that pursued Confucianism in their governing body.
Tokugawa Japan, like the Qing, wanted to incorporate Confucianism into its government, and also like the Qing, they showed many signs of a Confucian state. Firstly, Japan’s legal system at the time is a hallmark of Confucian manifestations in a governing system. Arai Hakuseki, a Japanese politician, details a case in which a young woman reported that her father and brother had murdered her husband. Arai writes that the shogun commented, “The words of the wife to Ts’ai Chung need not be accepted in arriving at our judgement…Confucius did not say that to conceal is the way of righteousness.”[6] This shows that even in court rulings, the teachings of Confucius take precedence in deciding the verdict. Arai later quotes the shogun again, saying, “The case must be dealt with in accordance with the…three fundamental principles…the ruler is lord over his subject, the father is lord over his son, and the husband is lord over his wife.”[7] This again exemplifies the influence of Confucianism in Tokugawa Japan’s governing system.
Furthermore, Confucianism plays a part in how many people during the Tokugawa period behaved. In 47 Ronin, the author writes, “After Asano’s death, his wife shaved her head and became a nun.”[8] This was most likely in order to preserve her chastity after her husband’s death, again harkening back to the relationship of husband and wife that Confucius outlined in his first teachings. The author writes that “To draw a weapon in the shogun’s palace was a serious offence and the act of wounding a shogunal official made it even worse.”[9] Perhaps this is not explicitly Confucian, as many other examples have been, however, it demonstrates the importance of government officials. This idea was also present in Qing China, with its Confucian examinations. Although this Japanese law may not necessarily be inherently Confucian, it is stemmed from Confucian teachings and their implementation.
Confucianism as a philosophy proved to be an effective tool in government throughout East Asia, and many states claimed to be Confucian as well. Perhaps not all these claims would have met the standard that Confucius himself set in his teachings. However, this essay argued that both Qing China, and Tokugawa would have been perceived as Confucian by Confucius through the employment of his teachings throughout their respective governments. The effectiveness of their governments may be up for debate, however, Qing China’s and Tokugawa Japan’s faithfulness to Confucian teachings was unwavering.
[1] Ichisada Miyazaki, Examination Hell (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976) 45–50.
[2] Lin Zixu Letter of Advice to Queen Victoria (1839) 2.
[3] Ibid.
[4] Ssuyu Teng and John Fairbank, China’s Response to the West (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954) 51.
[5] Ssuyu Teng and John Fairbank, China’s Response to the West (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954) 52.
[6] David Lu Source of Japanese History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974).
[7] Ibid.
[8] Harry Cook Samurai (New York: Sterling, 1993) 114.
[9]Ibid.
Written 12 February 2017
