Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Inflammatory, Demyelinating, and Autoimmune Diseases in Infants and Children

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Pediatric Neuroradiology

  • 81 Accesses

Abstract

Our understanding of the natural history and physiopathological background of most of the inflammatory white matter diseases is still far from being complete although the numerous classification systems proposed and most recently updated. It is therefore important to strike the balance between the extremes of oversimplification and excessive detail.

This chapter aims to equip the reader with an understanding of the major demyelinating and inflammatory white matter diseases in infants and children.

The readers will also find that this group of diseases includes fairly known and common entities such as multiple sclerosis or acute disseminated encephalomyelitis together with far more complex, somewhat obscure but maybe underdiagnosed diseases such as MOG Spectrum Disorders and Limbic Encephalitis.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Absoud M, Greenberg BM, Lim M, Lotze T, Thomas T, Deiva K. Pediatric transverse myelitis. Neurology. 2016;87(Suppl 2):S46–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alper G, Petropoulou KA, Fitz CR, Kim Y. Idiopathic acute transverse myelitis in children: an analysis and discussion of MRI findings. Mult Scler. 2011;17:74–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balò J. Encephalitis periaxialis concentrica. Arch Neurol Psychiatr. 1928;19:242–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banwell B, Tenembaum S, Lennon VA, Ursell E, Kennedy J, Bar-Or A, Weinshenker BG, Lucchinetti CF, Pittock SJ. Neuromyelitis optica-IgG in childhood inflammatory demyelinating CNS disorders. Neurology. 2008;70:344–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer HJ, Hanefeld F, Chriten HJ. MS in early childhood. Lancet. 1991;336:1190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumann M, Sahin K, Lechner C, Hennes EM, Schanda K, Mader S, Karenfort M, Selch C, Häusler M, Eisenkölbl A, Salandin M, Gruber-Sedlmayr U, Blaschek A, Kraus V, Leiz S, Finsterwalder J, Gotwald T, Kuchukhidze G, Berger T, Reindl M, Rostásy K. Clinical and neuroradiological differences of paediatric acute disseminating encephalomyelitis with and without antibodies to the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2015;86:265–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ben Sira L, Miller E, Artzi M, Fattal-Valevski A, Constantini S, Ben BD. 1H-MRS for the diagnosis of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: insight into the acute-disease stage. Pediatr Radiol. 2010;40:106–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biancheri R, Pessagno A, Baglietto MG, Irani SR, Rossi A, Giribaldi G, Badenier MM, Vincent A, Veneselli E. Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate-receptor encephalitis in a four-year-old girl. J Pediatr. 2010;156:332–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bien CG, Widman G, Urbach H, Sassen R, Kuczaty S, Wiestler OD, Schramm J, Elger CE. The natural history of Rasmussen’s encephalitis. Brain. 2002;125:1751–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bien CG, Granata T, Antozzi C, Cross JH, Dulac O, Kurthen M, Lassmann H, Mantegazza R, Villemure JG, Spreafico R, Elger CE. Pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of Rasmussen encephalitis: a European consensus statement. Brain. 2005;128:454–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borlot F, da Paz JA, Casella EB, Marques-Dias MJ. Acute hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis in childhood: case report and literature review. J Pediatr Neurosci. 2011;6:48–51.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bruhn H, Frahm J, Merboldt KD, Hänicke W, Hanefeld F, Christen HJ, Kruse B, Bauer HJ. Multiple sclerosis in children: cerebral metabolic alterations monitored by localized proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in vivo. Ann Neurol. 1992;32:140–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bukhari W, Barnett MH, Prain K, Broadley SA. Molecular pathogenesis of neuromyelitis optica. Int J Mol Sci. 2012;13:12970–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bulakbasi N, Kocaoglu M, Tayfun C, Ucoz T. Transient splenial lesion of the corpus callosum in clinically mild influenza associated encephalitis/encephalopathy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2006;27:1983–6.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Callen DJ, Shroff MM, Branson HM, Lotze T, Li DK, Stephens D, Banwell BL. MRI in the diagnosis of pediatric multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2009;72:961–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiapparini L, Granata T, Farina L, Ciceri E, Erbetta A, Ragona F, Freri E, Fusco L, Gobbi G, Capovilla G, Tassi L, Giordano L, Viri M, Dalla Bernardina B, Spreafico R, Savoiardo M. Diagnostic imaging in 13 cases of Rasmussen’s encephalitis: can early MRI suggest the diagnosis? Neuroradiology. 2003;45:171–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Collongues N, Marignier R, Zéphir H, Papeix C, Fontaine B, Blanc F, Rodriguez D, Fleury M, Vukusic S, Pelletier J, Audoin B, Thouvenot E, Camu W, Barroso B, Ruet A, Brochet B, Vermersch P, Confavreux C, de Seze J. Long-term follow-up of neuromyelitis optica with a pediatric onset. Neurology. 2010;75:1084–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • da Rocha AJ, Nunes RH, Maia AC Jr, do Amaral LL. Recognizing autoimmune-mediated encephalitis in the differential diagnosis of limbic disorders. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2015;36:2196–205.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dale RC, de Sousa C, Chong WK, Cox TC, Harding B, Neville BG. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis in children. Brain. 2000;123:2407–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dalmau J, Lancaster E, Martinez-Hernandez E, Rosenfeld MR, Balice-Gordon R. Clinical experience and laboratory investigations in patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Lancet Neurol. 2011;10:63–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • de Seze J, Stojkovic T, Ferriby D, Gauvrit JY, Montagne C, Mounier-Vehier F, Verier A, Pruvo JP, Hache JC, Vermersch P. Devic’s neuromyelitis optica: clinical, laboratory, MRI and outcome profile. J Neurol Sci. 2002;197:57–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez-Carbonell C, Vargas-Lowy D, Musallam A, Healy B, McLaughlin K, Wucherpfennig KW, Chitnis T. Clinical and MRI phenotype of children with MOG antibodies. Mult Scler. 2016;22:174–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gallucci M, Caulo M, Cerone G, Masciocchi C. Acquired inflammatory white matter diseases. Childs Nerv Syst. 2001;17:202–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ge Y, Law M, Johnson G, Herbert J, Babb JS, Mannon LJ, Grossman RI. Dynamic susceptibility contrast perfusion MRimaging of multiple sclerosis lesions: characterizing hemodynamic impairment and inflammatory activity. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2005;26:1539–47.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Granata T, Andermann F. Rasmussen encephalitis. Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;111:511–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Granata T, Gobbi G, Spreafico R, Vigevano F, Capovilla G, Ragona F, Freri E, Chiapparini L, Bernasconi P, Giordano L, Bertani G, Casazza M, Dalla Bernardina B, Fusco L. Rasmussen's encephalitis: early characteristics allow diagnosis. Neurology. 2003;60:422–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hacohen Y, Absoud M, Deiva K, Hemingway C, Nytrova P, Woodhall M, Palace J, Wassmer E, Tardieu M, Vincent A, Lim M, Waters P. Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies are associated with a non-MS course in children. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2015;2:e81.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hacohen Y, Rossor T, Mankad K, Chong W, Lux A, Wassmer E, Lim M, Barkhof F, Ciccarelli O, Hemingway C. ‘Leukodystrophy-like’ phenotype in children with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2018;60:417–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanefeld F. Multiple sclerosis in childhood. Curr Opin Neurol Neurosurg. 1992;5:359–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harding KE, Liang K, Cossburn MD, Ingram G, Hirst CL, Pickersgill TP, Te Water NJ, Wardle M, Ben-Shlomo Y, Robertson NP. Long-term outcome of paediatric-onset multiple sclerosis: a population-based study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2013;84:141–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hennes EM, Baumann M, Schanda K, Anlar B, Bajer-Kornek B, Blaschek A, Brantner-Inthaler S, Diepold K, Eisenkölbl A, Gotwald T, Kuchukhidze G, Gruber-Sedlmayr U, Häusler M, Höftberger R, Karenfort M, Klein A, Koch J, Kraus V, Lechner C, Leiz S, Leypoldt F, Mader S, Marquard K, Poggenburg I, Pohl D, Pritsch M, Raucherzauner M, Schimmel M, Thiels C, Tibussek D, Vieker S, Zeches C, Berger T, Reindl M, Rostásy K, BIOMARKER Study Group. Prognostic relevance of MOG antibodies in children with an acquired demyelinating syndrome. Neurology. 2017;89:900–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hennes EM, Baumann M, Lechner C, Rostásy K. MOG spectrum disorders and role of MOG-antibodies in clinical practice. Neuropediatrics. 2018;49:3–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hummel HM, Brück W, Dreha-Kulaczewski S, Gärtner J, Wuerfel J. Pediatric onset multiple sclerosis: McDonald criteria 2010 and the contribution of spinal cord MRI. Mult Scler. 2013;19:1330–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huppke P, Rostasy K, Karenfort M, Huppke B, Seidl R, Leiz S, Reindl M, Gärtner J. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis followed by recurrent or monophasic optic neuritis in pediatric patients. Mult Scler. 2013;19:941–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hynson JL, Kornberg AJ, Coleman LT, Shield L, Harvey AS, Kean MJ. Clinical and neuroradiological features of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in children. Neurology. 2001;56:1308–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iaffaldano P, Simone M, Lucisano G, Ghezzi A, Coniglio G, Brescia Morra V, Salemi G, Patti F, Lugaresi A, Izquierdo G, Bergamaschi R, Cabrera-Gomez JA, Pozzilli C, Millefiorini E, Alroughani R, Boz C, Pucci E, Zimatore GB, Sola P, Lus G, Maimone D, Avolio C, Cocco E, Sajedi SA, Costantino G, Duquette P, Shaygannejad V, Petersen T, Fernández Bolaños R, Paolicelli D, Tortorella C, Spelman T, Margari L, Amato MP, Comi G, Butzkueven H, Trojano M, Italian iMedWeb Registry and the MSBase Registry. Prognostic indicators in pediatric clinically isolated syndrome. Ann Neurol. 2017;81:729–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kamei A, Ichinohe S, Onuma R, Hiraga S, Fujiwara T. Acute disseminated demyelination due to primary human herpesvirus-6 infection. Eur J Pediatr. 1997;156:709–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karaarslan E, Altintas A, Senol U, Yeni N, Dincer A, Bayindir C, Karaagac N, Siva A. Balo’s concentric sclerosis: clinical and radiologic features of five cases. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2001;22:1362–7.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Karussis D, Petrou P. The spectrum of post-vaccination inflammatory CNS demyelinating syndromes. Autoimmun Rev. 2014;13:215–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kesselring J, Miller DH, Robb SA, Kendall BE, Moseley IF, Kingsley D, du Boulay EP, McDonald WI. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. MRI findings and the distinction from multiple sclerosis. Brain. 1990;113:291–302.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ketelslegers IA, Visser IE, Neuteboom RF, Boon M, Catsman-Berrevoets CE, Hintzen RQ. Disease course and outcome of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis is more severe in adults than in children. Mult Scler. 2011;17:441–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim HJ, Paul F, Lana-Peixoto MA, Tenembaum S, Asgari N, Palace J, Guthy-Jackson Charitable Foundation NMO International Clinical Consortium & Biorepository. MRI characteristics of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder: an international update. Neurology. 2015a;84:1165–73.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kim JM, Son CN, Chang HW, Kim SH. Simultaneous presentation of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) after enteroviral infection: can ADEM present as the first manifestation of SLE? Lupus. 2015b;24:633–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirat N, De Cauwer H, Ceulemans B, Vanneste D, Rossi A. Influenza-associated encephalopathy with extensive reversible restricted diffusion within the white matter. Acta Neurol Belg. 2018;118:553–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koelman DL, Chahin S, Mar SS, Venkatesan A, Hoganson GM, Yeshokumar AK, Barreras P, Majmudar B, Klein JP, Chitnis T, Benkeser DC, Carone M, Mateen FJ. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in 228 patients: a retrospective, multicenter US study. Neurology. 2016;86:2085–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korte JH, Bom EP, Vos LD, Breuer TJ, Wondergem JH. Balo concentric sclerosis. MR diagnosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1994;15:1284–5.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Krupp LB, Tardieu M, Amato MP, Banwell B, Chitnis T, Dale RC, Ghezzi A, Hintzen R, Kornberg A, Pohl D, Rostasy K, Tenembaum S, Wassmer E, International Pediatric Multiple Sclerosis Study Group. International Pediatric Multiple Sclerosis Study Group criteria for pediatric multiple sclerosis and immune-mediated central nervous system demyelinating disorders: revisions to the 2007 definitions. Mult Scler. 2013;19:1261–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lapointe E, Li DKB, Traboulsee AL, Rauscher A. What have we learned from perfusion MRI in multiple sclerosis? AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2018;39:994–1000.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lassmann H. The pathologic substrate of magnetic resonance alterations in multiple sclerosis. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 2008;18:563–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Law LY, Nagao KJ. Paraneoplastic acute disseminated encephalomyelitis associated with multiple myeloma. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2017;13:21–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lechner C, Baumann M, Hennes EM, Schanda K, Marquard K, Karenfort M, Leiz S, Pohl D, Venkateswaran S, Pritsch M, Koch J, Schimmel M, Häusler M, Klein A, Blaschek A, Thiels C, Lücke T, Gruber-Sedlmayr U, Kornek B, Hahn A, Leypoldt F, Sandrieser T, Gallwitz H, Stoffels J, Korenke C, Reindl M, Rostásy K. Antibodies to MOG and AQP4 in children with neuromyelitis optica and limited forms of the disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2016;87:897–905.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lennon VA, Wingerchuk DM, Kryzer TJ, Pittock SJ, Lucchinetti CF, Fujihara K, Nakashima I, Weinshenker BG. A serum autoantibody marker of neuromyelitis optica: distinction from multiple sclerosis. Lancet. 2004;364:2106–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luca N, Daengsuwan T, Dalmau J, Jones K, deVeber G, Kobayashi J, Laxer RM, Benseler SM. Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis: a newly recognized inflammatory brain disease in children. Arthritis Rheum. 2011;63:2516–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mandler RN, Davis LE, Jeffery DR, Kornfeld M. Devic’s neuromyelitis optica: a clinicopathological study of 8 patients. Ann Neurol. 1993;34:162–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Menkes JH. Textbook of child neurology. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller DH, Chard DT, Ciccarelli O. Clinically isolated syndromes. Lancet Neurol. 2012;11:157–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mirabelli-Badenier M, Morana G, Pinto F, Uccelli A, Veneselli E, Battaglia FM, Biancheri R, Baglietto MG, Vincent A, Mancardi MM. Anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase limbic encephalitis without epilepsy evolving into dementia with cerebellar ataxia. Arch Neurol. 2012;69:1064–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mirabelli-Badenier M, Biancheri R, Morana G, Fornarino S, Siri L, Celle ME, Veneselli E, Vincent A, Gaggero R, Mancardi MM. Anti-NMDAR encephalitis misdiagnosed as Hashimoto’s encephalopathy. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2014;18:72–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mizuguchi M, Abe J, Mikkaichi K, Noma S, Yoshida K, Yamanaka T, Kamoshita S. Acute necrotising encephalopathy of childhood: a new syndrome presenting with multifocal, symmetric brain lesions. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995;58:555–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Neilson DE. The interplay of infection and genetics in acute necrotizing encephalopathy. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2010;22:751–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neilson DE, Adams MD, Orr CM, Schelling DK, Eiben RM, Kerr DS, Anderson J, Bassuk AG, Bye AM, Childs AM, Clarke A, Crow YJ, Di Rocco M, Dohna-Schwake C, Dueckers G, Fasano AE, Gika AD, Gionnis D, Gorman MP, Grattan-Smith PJ, Hackenberg A, Kuster A, Lentschig MG, Lopez-Laso E, Marco EJ, Mastroyianni S, Perrier J, Schmitt-Mechelke T, Servidei S, Skardoutsou A, Uldall P, van der Knaap MS, Goglin KC, Tefft DL, Aubin C, de Jager P, Hafler D, Warman ML. Infection-triggered familial or recurrent cases of acute necrotizing encephalopathy caused by mutations in a component of the nuclear pore, RANBP2. Am J Hum Genet. 2009;84:44–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Owens GC, Huynh MN, Chang JW, McArthur DL, Hickey MJ, Vinters HV, Mathern GW, Kruse CA. Differential expression of interferon-γ and chemokine genes distinguishes Rasmussen encephalitis from cortical dysplasia and provides evidence for an early Th1 immune response. J Neuroinflammation. 2013;10:56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Özkale Y, Erol I, Özkale M, Demir Ş, Alehan F. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis associated with influenza AH1N1 infection. Pediatr Neurol. 2012;47:62–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pardo CA, Vining EP, Guo L, Skolasky RL, Carson BS, Freeman JM. The pathology of Rasmussen syndrome: stages of cortical involvement and neuropathological studies in 45 hemispherectomies. Epilepsia. 2004;45:516–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pavone P, Pettoello-Mantovano M, Le Pira A, Giardino I, Pulvirenti A, Giugno R, Parano E, Polizzi A, Distefano A, Ferro A, Pavone L, Ruggieri M. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: a long-term prospective study and meta-analysis. Neuropediatrics. 2010;41:246–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pohl D, Alper G, Van Haren K, Kornberg AJ, Lucchinetti CF, Tenembaum S. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: updates on an inflammatory CNS syndrome. Neurology. 2016;87(Suppl 2):S38–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Polman CH, Reingold SC, Banwell B, Clanet M, Cohen JA, Filippi M, Fujihara K, Havrdova E, Hutchinson M, Kappos L, Lublin FD, Montalban X, O’Connor P, Sandberg-Wollheim M, Thompson AJ, Waubant E, Weinshenker B, Wolinsky JS. Diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: 2010 revisions to the McDonald criteria. Ann Neurol. 2011;69:292–302.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Poser CM, Goutieres F, Carpentier MA, Aicardi J. Schilder’s myelinoclastic diffuse sclerosis. Pediatrics. 1986;77:107–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poser S, Lüer W, Bruhn H, Frahm J, Brück Y, Felgenhauer K. Acute demyelinating disease. Classification and non-invasive diagnosis. Acta Neurol Scand. 1992;86:579–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prineas JW, McDonald WI. Demyelinating diseases. In: Graham DI, Lantos PL, editors. Greenfield’s neuropathology. 6th ed. London: Arnold; 1997. p. 813.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pröbstel AK, Dornmair K, Bittner R, Sperl P, Jenne D, Magalhaes S, Villalobos A, Breithaupt C, Weissert R, Jacob U, Krumbholz M, Kuempfel T, Blaschek A, Stark W, Gärtner J, Pohl D, Rostasy K, Weber F, Forne I, Khademi M, Olsson T, Brilot F, Tantsis E, Dale RC, Wekerle H, Hohlfeld R, Banwell B, Bar-Or A, Meinl E, Derfuss T. Antibodies to MOG are transient in childhood acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. Neurology. 2011;77:580–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raine CS. Demyelinating diseases. In: Davis RL, Robertson DM, editors. Textbook of neuropathology. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1991. p. 581–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reinhardt K, Weiss S, Rosenbauer J, Gärtner J, von Kries R. Multiple sclerosis in children and adolescents: incidence and clinical picture – new insights from the nationwide German surveillance (2009-2011). Eur J Neurol. 2014;21:654–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossi A. Imaging of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 2008;18:149–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossi A, Garrè ML, Ravegnani M, Nozza P, Abbruzzese A, Giangaspero F, Tortori-Donati P. Bilateral germinoma of the basal ganglia. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2008;50:177–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rostasy K, Reindl M. Role of autoantibodies in acquired inflammatory demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system in children. Neuropediatrics. 2013;44(6):297–301.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sadaka Y, Verhey LH, Shroff MM, Branson HM, Arnold DL, Narayanan S, Sled JG, Bar-Or A, Sadovnick AD, McGowan M, Marrie RA, Banwell B, Canadian Pediatric Demyelinating Disease Network. 2010 McDonald criteria for diagnosing pediatric multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 2012;72:211–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sayg S, Olga A, Ükarde Y, Alehan F, Varan B. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis associated with acute rheumatic fever. Pediatr Neurol. 2011;44:233–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schilder PF. Zur Kenntnis der sogenannten diffusen Sklerose (über Encephalitis periaxialis diffusa). Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie. 1912;10:1–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw CM, Alword EC Jr. MS beginning in infancy. J Child Neurol. 1987;2:252–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sidhu J, Maheshwari A, Gupta R, Devgan V. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis after Plasmodium vivax infection: case report and review of literature. Pediatr Rep. 2015;7:28–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sivaraman I, Moodley M. Multiple sclerosis in the very young: a case report and review of the literature. Neurodegener Dis Manag. 2016;6:31–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Summerfield R, Al-Saleh A, Robbins SE. Small cell lung carcinoma presenting with acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. Br J Radiol. 2010;83:e54–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suppiej A, Cainelli E, Casara G, Cappellari A, Nosadini M, Sartori S. Long-term neurocognitive outcome and quality of life in pediatric acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. Pediatr Neurol. 2014;50:363–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Takanashi J. Two newly proposed infectious encephalitis/encephalopathy syndromes. Brain and Development. 2009;31:521–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tashiro K, Ito K, Maruo Y, Homma S, Yamada T, Fujiki N, Moriwaka F. MR imaging of spinal cord in Devic disease. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1987;11:516–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tenembaum S, Chamoles N, Fejerman N. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. A long-term follow-up study of 84 pediatric patients. Neurology. 2002;59:1224–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Till C, Deotto A, Tipu V, Sled JG, Bethune A, Narayanan S, Arnold DL, Banwell BL. White matter integrity and math performance in pediatric multiple sclerosis: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Neuroreport. 2011;22:1005–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tortori-Donati P, Fondelli MP, Rossi A, Rolando S, Andreussi L, Brisigotti M. La neuromielite ottica. Una ulteriore sfida nella diagnosi differenziale con le neoplasie intramidollari. Riv Neuroradiol. 1993;6:53–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trapp BD, Peterson J, Ransohoff RM, Rudick R, Mork S, Bo L. Axonal transection in the lesions of multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med. 1998;29(338):278–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Knaap MS, Valk J. Magnetic resonance of myelin, myelination, and myelin disorders. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer; 1995.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Varadkar S, Bien CG, Kruse CA, Jensen FE, Bauer J, Pardo CA, Vincent A, Mathern GW, Cross JH. Rasmussen’s encephalitis: clinical features, pathobiology, and treatment advances. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13:195–205.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vargas WS, Merchant S, Solomon G. Favorable outcomes in acute necrotizing encephalopathy in a child treated with hypothermia. Pediatr Neurol. 2012;46:387–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verhey LH, Branson HM, Shroff MM, Callen DJ, Sled JG, Narayanan S, Sadovnick AD, Bar-Or A, Arnold DL, Marrie RA, Banwell B, Canadian Pediatric Demyelinating Disease Network. MRI parameters for prediction of multiple sclerosis diagnosis in children with acute CNS demyelination: a prospective national cohort study. Lancet Neurol. 2011;10:1065–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang HS. Concentric thalamic change on MR of acute necrotising encephalopathy of childhood. Neuroradiology. 2003;45:661–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wingerchuk DM, Banwell B, Bennett JL, Cabre P, Carroll W, Chitnis T, de Seze J, Fujihara K, Greenberg B, Jacob A, Jarius S, Lana-Peixoto M, Levy M, Simon JH, Tenembaum S, Traboulsee AL, Waters P, Wellik KE, Weinshenker BG, International Panel for NMO Diagnosis. International consensus diagnostic criteria for neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Neurology. 2015;85:177–89.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wong AM, Simon EM, Zimmerman RA, Wang HS, Toh CH, Ng SH. Acute necrotizing encephalopathy of childhood: correlation of MR findings and clinical outcome. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2006;27:1919–23.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wu X, Wu W, Pan W, Wu L, Liu K, Zhang HL. Acute necrotizing encephalopathy: an underrecognized clinicoradiologic disorder. Mediat Inflamm. 2015;2015:792578.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young NP, Weinshenker BG, Parisi JE, Scheithauer B, Giannini C, Roemer SF, Thomsen KM, Mandrekar JN, Erickson BJ, Lucchinetti CF. Perivenous demyelination: association with clinically defined acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and comparison with pathologically confirmed multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2010;133:333–48.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zuccoli G, Panigrahy A, Sreedher G, Bailey A, Laney EJ 4th, La Colla L, Alper G. Vasogenic edema characterizes pediatric acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. Neuroradiology. 2014;56:679–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University “G. d’Annunzio” Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy

    Massimo Caulo & Marco Colasurdo

  2. ITAB – Institute of Advanced Biomedical Technologies, University “G. d’Annunzio” Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy

    Massimo Caulo & Marco Colasurdo

  3. Neuroradiology Unit, Istituto Giannina Gaslini Children’s Hospital, Genoa, Italy

    Andrea Rossi

Authors
  1. Massimo Caulo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Marco Colasurdo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Andrea Rossi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Massimo Caulo .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neuroradiology, G Gaslini Children's Hospital, Genoa, Italy

    Andrea Rossi

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Caulo, M., Colasurdo, M., Rossi, A. (2019). Inflammatory, Demyelinating, and Autoimmune Diseases in Infants and Children. In: Rossi, A. (eds) Pediatric Neuroradiology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-46258-4_45-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-46258-4_45-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-662-46258-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-662-46258-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation