Red List of South African Species

Alternatively, Explore species
| National Red List categories | Partners |
Least Concern (LC)
Assessors: Ingrid Peters
Contributors: Matthew Child Claire Relton Fiona Preston-Whyte Simon Elwen Ken Findlay Mike Meyer Herman Oosthuizen Stephanie Plön
Reviewers: Jaco Barendse

Rationale

Within the assessment region, the Southern Right Whale population is increasing and recent ranges expand into historical parts of its range, suggesting healthy population dynamics. Population numbers are no longer decreasing thanks to the IWC’s moratorium on right whale capture since 1935, followed by the cessation of illegal Soviet captures in 1972. Areas of reduced anthropogenic disturbance located in sheltered coastal waters such as the De Hoop Marine Protected Area and the Hermanus whale sanctuary may contribute to a continued stable population growth rate Population increases within the assessment region have been estimated through aerial surveys, and the most recent annual population growth rate is projected as 6.6%. No major threats have been identified that could cause rapid population decline. However, there is the emerging pressure of bulk sediment benthic phosphate mining off South Africa and Namibia, and the impacts of such activity on the ecosystem is unknown, but likely negative and should be monitored.

In 1997, the globally estimated population size, based on a 7.5% annual increase, was over 1,600 mature females. Although still scarce relative to its historic abundance (less than 10%), no major threats seem to be threatening Southern Right Whale populations. In 2007 the current global southern hemisphere population was estimated to be greater now than it was three generations prior. This result was based on an estimated generation time of 29 years.

Regional population effects: This southern hemisphere species exhibits seasonal migration and is wide-ranging. There are no barriers to dispersal, thus rescue effects are possible.

Distribution

Across the southern hemisphere, Southern Right Whales have a circumpolar distribution, present within the South Atlantic, South Pacific and Indian Oceans. Similar to other mysticete species, Southern Right Whales exhibit seasonal migrations southwards in summer to sub-Antarctic waters where they feed predominately on copepods (Tormosov et al. 1998), and northwards in winter (as far as about 20°S) for calving and nursing.

In summer, Southern Right Whales are commonly located between 40°S and 50°S (Ohsumi and Kasamatsu 1986), however they have been reported as far south as 65°S (Bannister et al. 1999, IWC 2007), and around South Georgia in the southern Atlantic Ocean (Rowntree et al. 2001). These sightings from the Antarctic to the sub-Antarctic (or grounds associated with sub-Antarctic or subtropical convergence zone), do not necessarily signify a range expansion but rather, new information derived from satellite tagging.

During winter months the species moves northwards towards coastlines of continents and islands, mainly for calving. Nursery grounds have been identified close to the shore off the southern regions of Australia and New Zealand, especially the Auckland and Campbell Islands, as well as off the east coast of South America and around southern Africa (Richards 2009). To a lesser extent, they have also been documented off the coasts of Chile, Peru, Tristan da Cunha, and the east coast of Madagascar (IWC 2001, Rosenbaum et al. 2001).

Within the assessment region, this species had a historical distribution up to southern Angola. Historically there were three winter concentrations, namely Walvis Bay in present day Namibia, the Cape of Good Hope in the west, and up to Delagoa Bay on the east coast of South Africa (Richards 2009). Present summer distribution in southern African waters encompasses 35°S to 60°S. In winter, females with calves are concentrated on the southern African coastal calving ground from 18°30’E to 23°50’E (Best 2000). There is a recognized core area for breeding populations between Saint Sebastian Bay and Pearly Beach near Hermanus, (Elwen and Best 2004a, 2004b, 2004c). Further core areas occur throughout the Benguela (at low frequencies during autumn and winter) (Barendse and Best 2014). The main behaviours recorded for whales along the west coast, up to St Helena Bay, is for socialising during spring and feeding during summer (Barendse and Best 2014). However, it is still not known where the majority of males and females without calves overwinter.

Population increases of the residual population are leading to repopulation of historical habitat, for example into Namibia and Mozambique. Photo-identification and genetic data are needed to determine whether the whales sighted off Mozambique are part of the South African population or the remains of the historic Indian Ocean population (IWC 2013). Also, shore-based observation along the South African west coast suggests that there are animals moving from a northern area southwards, but research coverage north of St Helena Bay is nearly nonexistent (Barendse and Best 2014). 

Additionally Southern Right Whales have been seen sporadically at sub-Antarctic Marion Island, a South African territory (Postma et al. 2011), which is part of the Prince Edward Islands Marine Protected Area (MPA), and movement has been recorded between South Africa and Marion Island (Best and Peters 2011).

Population trend

Trend

The most recent assessment of Southern Right Whale populations was conducted by the IWC in 2011 (IWC 2013). Populations were significantly depleted by commercial whaling; however, since then three breeding populations off Australia, South Africa and the east coast of South America have all shown strong recovery. 

Although some illegal Soviet whaling during the 1960s impeded population recovery, subsequently populations appear to have increased. Based on a 7.5% annual increase in 1997, the estimated global population abundance was 7,500 individuals, including 1,600 mature females (659 from South African waters) (IWC 2001). However, the global population estimated in 1997 was likely still less than 10% of historic levels (IWC 2001).

Within the assessment region, the southern African coast is considered to be one breeding assemblage of Southern Right Whales. In 2012 the total population that overwinters off the southern African coast was estimated at 5,062 animals, of which 1,321 were thought to be reproducing females (Brandão et al. 2013). The annual population growth rate within the assessment region is estimated at 6.6% (Brandão et al. 2013). The estimated generation length is 29 years (Taylor et al. 2007).

Threats

Right Whales were specifically targeted by commercial southern hemisphere whaling since its commencement in the 17th century, and during the 18th and 19th centuries exploitation of these species by American and European whaling increased substantially. There is a great deal of uncertainty over the exact number of animals killed during this period, however, between 1770 and 1900 there is a conservative estimate of 150,000 individuals killed globally, and between 48,000 and 60,000 of these were believed to have been killed during the 1930s alone. At the beginning of the 20th century (the start of the modern whaling era), Southern Right Whales were rare, thus only 1,600 were caught before they were formally protected in 1935.
 
The southern hemisphere population (Southern Right Whales) was estimated at 55,000–70,000 individuals in 1770, but is believed to have dropped to only 300 by the 1920s. From American import records of whale oil and baleen, Best (1987) estimated that nearly 60,000 Southern Right Whales were caught by American commercial whalers during the 19th century. Following their protection in 1935, it is presumed that their numbers increased until the 1960s when 3,212 individuals were illegally hunted by Soviet fleets between 1951 and 1970 (Tormosov et al. 1998), thus delaying their recovery.

Currently the species is subjected to entanglement (mostly in fishing gear, including shark nets, trap fisheries) and ship strikes, but neither have any measureable impact on the rate of recovery. Ranked threats are:
  1. Entanglement increasing with population but not accelerating. There is need to monitor the experimental octopus longline pot fishery on the south coast where entanglements of Bryde’s whales have been recorded recently. Humpback and Southern Right Whales are the two large whale species most likely be become entangled in nets (Meÿer et al. 2011). Reported incidents of Southern Right Whale entanglement in nets other than shark nets increased between 1990 and 2009; however, this was accounted for by the 7% annual increase in population abundance. Although entanglement mortality does not appear to be hindering population growth, increased population numbers are expected to result in heightened levels of anthropogenic interaction, thus requiring mitigation improvements.
  2. The severity of small boat ship strikes is increasing, especially with calves in nursery grounds. Ship strikes from fishing boats is also likely to be increasing (Best et al. 2011). Areas of industrial development such as Saldanha Bay, where whales utilise the bay and harbour approaches, may be potential additional ship strike areas (Barendse and Best 2014).
  3. Climate change may also affect this species. Observed correlations between breeding success off Argentina and sea surface temperature anomalies at South Georgia suggest that as Southern Ocean feeding grounds warm up, the average calving rate of Southern Right Whales can be expected to decline (Leaper et al. 2006).
  4. An additional emerging threat to this species as a result of climate change includes heightened disease transmission and changes in energy expenditure (thus affecting lactation and calf rearing).
  5. Anthropogenic noise is a potential minor manageable threat. Seismic surveys may be increasing and of concern in areas like De Hoop MPA where prospecting rights are allocated near nursery areas.
  6. An emerging and potentially severe threat in South African and Namibian waters is allocation of rights for bulk sediment mining for benthic phosphates (Benkenstein 2014). The disturbance of sediments and extraction of minerals could potentially impact on the dynamics of nutrient cycling and productivity in yet unknown ways. 
  7. Current levels of ecotourism are sustainable but increases may cause disturbance to calves at nursery sites.
  8. On Argentina’s important Península Valdés calving ground, parasitism by Kelp Gulls Larus dominicanus, which gouge skin and blubber from the whales’ backs, has been increasing rapidly in recent years and may eventually drive the whales elsewhere (Rowntree et al. 1998). These gull attacks may play a contributing factor in the spike in mortality of Southern Right Whale calves since 2003 (IWC 2013). This appears to be a learned behaviour that has spread through the gull population, and which is likely exacerbated by the elevated gull populations provisioned by the prevalence of uncovered disposal sites for fishery and other waste. This localised threat is used as a warning to closely monitor other populations.

Uses and trade

This species was specifically targeted during the periods of major commercial whaling, but is no longer harvested. There may still be some informal use of baleen and whale  bones collected from stranded animals for artistic or ornamental purposes, or for use as educational exhibits in museums.

The value of shore-based whale-watching in South Africa in 1995 was estimated at about R5 million indirect expenditure (Findlay 1997). In 2008 it was estimated that there were > 500,000 whale watchers in South Africa spending > 2.7 million $US directly and > 58.7 million $US indirectly (O’Connor et al. 2009). The boat-based whale-watching industry (based on whale-watcher numbers) has increased by 14% per annum between 1998 and 2008. It is important to note that although these economic numbers are not just for Southern Right Whales, they are major contributors to the overall whalewatching industry

Conservation

Globally, right whale species have been formally protected from commercial whaling since 1935; however, this ruling has only been conformed to since the beginning of the 1970s, when illegal whaling by Soviet fleets was brought to an end, and land stations in South America no longer received Right Whales. Additionally, this species is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). 

The Southern Right Whale populations form one of South Africa's best long-term datasets for a conservation success story of how ending harvesting can restore populations and it is highly recommended that monitoring of the population is continued. For example, the Mammal Research Institute of the University of Pretoria is currently involved in monitoring the Southern Right Whale nursery grounds from Nature’s Valley to Muizenberg. Within the assessment region, Southern Right Whale calving grounds enjoy added protection in Hermanus, De Hoop and the Breede River Mouth areas, although there are other protected areas also utilized by the species: Table Mountain National Park MPA, West Coast National Park (feeding), Stillbay MPA, Goukamma MPA, Robberg MPA, Tsitsikamma MPA and the proposed Greater Addo MPA. Assessment of critical habitats such as nursing and feeding grounds should be considered.

In 2008, it became mandatory for vessels ≥ 65 feet (19.8 m) to travel at speeds of 10 knots or less in 10 seasonally managed areas (SMAs) off the east coast of the USA in attempts to reduce vessel strikes of large whales, in particular Southern Right Whales and Humpback Whales. Laist et al. (2014) determined that this mitigation effort is effective in reducing vessel strikes of right whales within the designated SMAs. In the future, South Africa could trial reducing boat speeds as an intervention to reduce boat strikes in hotspot areas (for example, harbours).

Recommendations for managers and practitioners:
  • Continued systematic monitoring of population.
  • Regulate boat traffic in harbours.
  • Enforce penalties on ecotourism operators who breach code of conduct.
Research priorities:
  • Continued research into inter-population relationships.
  • Explore importance of South Africa as a source population for re-occupation of former ranges in Namibian and Mozambique waters through photoidentification (photo-ID) and genetics data.
Encouraged citizen actions:
  • Citizens should help to enforce whale watching codes of conducts by reporting illegal activities.
  • Report strandings and entanglements to relevant authorities.
  • Whale-watching vessels can collect photo-ID data and make opportunistic behavioural observations.
  • Continue surveys and educate public regarding whale-watching, to minimise disturbance. An educated public can be watchdogs for compliance during (audience effect) expeditions, and help to enforce codes of conduct. Codes of conduct should be displayed on ships and made available to the public.
  • Uploading location sightings to virtual museum platforms will help in determining the spatial and temporal distribution of the population.

References 

[@article{2058,
 author = {Clapham, P.J., Young, S.B. and Brownell Jr., R.L.},
 title = {Baleen whales: conservation issues and the status of the most endangered populations.},
 year = {1999}
}
,@book{2062,
 address = {Lawrence, Kansas},
 author = {Rice, D.W.},
 publisher = {Society for Marine Mammalogy, Special Publication Number 4},
 title = {Marine Mammals of the World: Systematics and Distribution},
 year = {1998}
}
,@article{2474,
 author = {Moore SE.},
 journal = {Journal of Mammalogy},
 pages = {534--540},
 title = {Marine mammals as ecosystem sentinels},
 volume = {89},
 year = {2008}
}
,@article{2474,
 author = {Meÿer MA, Best PB, Anderson-Reade MD, Cliff G, Dudley SFJ, Kirkman SP},
 journal = {African Journal of Marine Science},
 pages = {429--439},
 title = {Trends and interventions in large whale entanglement along the South African coast},
 volume = {33},
 year = {2011}
}
,@electronic{2474,
 address = {www.marinemammalscience.org},
 author = {Committee on Taxonomy},
 publisher = {Society for Marine Mammalogy},
 title = {List of marine mammal species and subspecies},
 year = {2017}
}
,@techreport{2475,
 address = {La Jolla, California},
 author = {Taylor, B.L., Chivers, S.J., Larese, J. and Perrin, W.F.},
 title = {Generation length and percent mature estimates for IUCN assessments of cetaceans},
 year = {2007}
}
,@book{2476,
 address = {Cape Town, South Africa},
 author = {Best, P.B.},
 publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
 title = {Whales and Dolphins of the Southern African Subregion},
 year = {2007}
}
,@article{2476,
 author = {Gordon J, Gillespie D, Potter J, Frantzis A, Simmonds MP, Swift R, Thompson D},
 journal = {Marine Technology Society Journal},
 pages = {16--34},
 title = {A review of the effects of seismic surveys on marine mammals},
 volume = {37},
 year = {2003}
}
,@article{2478,
 author = {Laist DW, Knowlton AR, Pendleton D},
 journal = {Endangered Species Research},
 pages = {133--147},
 title = {Effectiveness of mandatory vessel speed limits for protecting North Atlantic right whales},
 volume = {23},
 year = {2014}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {International Whaling Commission},
 journal = {Journal of Cetacean Research and Management},
 pages = {1--60},
 title = {Report of the workshop on the comprehensive assessment of right whales: a worldwide comparison},
 volume = {(Special Issue) 2},
 year = {2001}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {International Whaling Commission},
 journal = {Journal of Cetacean Research and Management},
 number = {1},
 pages = {xi--xii},
 title = {Classification of the order Cetacea},
 volume = {6},
 year = {2004}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Rosenbaum H.C., Brownell Jr., R.L., Brown, M.W., Schaeff, C., Portway, V., White, B N., Malik, S., Pastene, L.A., Patenaude, N.J., Baker, C.S., Goto, M., Best, P.B., Clapham, P.J., Hamilton, P., Moore, M., Payne, R., Rowntree, V., Tynan, C.T., Bannister, J.L. and DeSalle, R},
 journal = {Molecular Ecology},
 pages = {1793--1802},
 title = {World-wide genetic differentiation of <i>Eubalaena</i>: questioning the number of right whale species},
 volume = {9},
 year = {2000}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Tormosov, D.D., Mikhaliev, Y.A., Best, P.B., Zemsky, V.A., Sekiguchi, K. and Brownell Jr., R.L.},
 title = {Soviet catches of southern right whales <i>Eubalaena australis</i>, 1951–1971. Biological data and conservation implications.},
 year = {1998}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Best, P.B.},
 journal = {Fishery Bulletin},
 number = {3},
 pages = {403--418},
 title = {Estimates of the landed catch of right (and other whalebone) whales in the American fishery, 1805-1909},
 volume = {85},
 year = {1987}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Rowntree, V. J., Payne, R. S. and Schell, D. S.},
 journal = {Journal of Cetacean Research and Management},
 pages = {133--144},
 title = {Changing patterns of habitat use by southern right whales (<i>Eubalaena australis</i>) on their nursery ground at Peninsula Valdes, Argentina, and in their long-range movements},
 volume = {2},
 year = {2001}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Leaper, R., Cooke, J. G., Trathan, P., Reid, K., Rowntree, V. and Payne, R.},
 journal = {Biology Letters},
 pages = {289--292},
 title = {Global climate drives southern right whale (<i>Eubalaena australis</i>) population dynamics},
 volume = {2},
 year = {2006}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Rosenbaum, H. C., Razafindrakoto, Y., Vahoavy, J. and Pomilla, C.},
 journal = {Journal of Cetacean Research and Management},
 pages = {177--179},
 title = {A note on recent sightings of southern right whales (<i>Eubalaena australis</i>) along the east coast of Madagascar},
 volume = {2},
 year = {2001}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Ohsumi, S. and Kasamatsu, F.},
 journal = {Reports of the International Whaling Commission},
 pages = {177--186},
 title = {Recent off-shore distribution of the southern right whale in summer},
 volume = {Special Issue 10},
 year = {1986}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Best, P. B.},
 journal = {Journal of Zoology (London)},
 pages = {175--189},
 title = {Seasonality of reproduction and the length of gestation in southern right whale <i>Eubalaena australis</i>},
 volume = {232},
 year = {1994}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Bannister, J. L., Pastene, L. A. and Burnell, L. A.},
 journal = {Marine Mammal Science},
 number = {4},
 pages = {1337--1342},
 title = {First record of movement of a southern right whale (<i>Eubalaena australis</i>) between warm water breeding grounds and the Antarctic Ocean, south of 60 degrees South},
 volume = {15},
 year = {1999}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {International Whaling Commission},
 journal = {Journal of Cetcaean Research and Management},
 title = {Report of the subcommittee on bowhead, right and gray whales},
 volume = {9},
 year = {2007}
}
,@techreport{8153,
 author = {Brandão, A., Butterworth, D.S., Ross-Gillespie, A. and Best, P.B.},
 title = {Application of a photo-identification based assessment model to southern right whales in South African waters, now including data up to 2012},
 year = {2013}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Pirzl R., Patenaude N.J., Burnell S. and Bannister J.L.},
 journal = {Marine Mammal Science},
 number = {2},
 pages = {455--461},
 title = {Movements of southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) between Australian and subantarctic New Zealand populations},
 volume = {25},
 year = {2009}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Valenzuela A.O., Sironi M., Rowntree V.J. and Seger J. },
 journal = {Molecular Ecology},
 number = {5},
 pages = {782--791},
 title = {Isotopic and genetic evidence for culturally inherited site fidelity to feeding grounds in southern right whales (Eubalaena australis)},
 volume = {18},
 year = {2009}
}
,@book{8153,
 address = {Cape Town, South Africa.},
 author = {Branch G, Griffiths C, Branch M, Beckley L.},
 publisher = {Struik Publishers},
 title = {Two Oceans. A Guide to the Marine Life of Southern Africa},
 year = {2007}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Barendse J, Best PB},
 journal = {Marine Mammal Science},
 pages = {1358--1382},
 title = {Shore-based observations of seasonality, movements, and group behavior of southern right whales in a nonnursery area on the South African west coast},
 volume = {30},
 year = {2014}
}
,@techreport{8153,
 author = {Benkenstein A},
 institution = {South African Institute of International Affairs, Policy Briefing No. 87},
 title = {Seabed Mining: Lessons from the Namibian Experience},
 year = {2014}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Best PB},
 journal = {South African Journal of Marine Science },
 pages = {43--55},
 title = {Coastal distribution and length of gestation in southern right whale <i>Eubalaena australis</i> off South Africa, 1969- 1998.},
 volume = {22},
 year = {2000}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Best PB, Meÿer MA, Kotze D, Hofmeyr GJG, Thornton M},
 title = {Mortalities of right whales in South African waters and associated factors (excluding entanglement), 1999-2010},
 year = {2011}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Best PB, Peters IT},
 title = {Linkages between right whales in South African waters and the Southern Ocean},
 year = {2011}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Elwen SH, Best PB},
 journal = {Marine Mammal Science},
 pages = {567--582},
 title = {Environmental factors influencing the distribution of southern right whales (<i>Eubalaena australis</i>) on the south coast of South Africa I: Broad scale patterns},
 volume = {20},
 year = {2004}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Elwen SH, Best PB},
 journal = {Marine Mammal Science},
 pages = {583--601},
 title = {Environmental factors influencing the distribution of southern right whales (<i>Eubalaena australis</i>) on the south coast of South Africa II: Within bay distribution},
 volume = {20},
 year = {2004}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Elwen SH, Best PB},
 journal = {Marine Ecology Progress Series},
 pages = {289--295},
 title = {Female southern right whales Eubalanena australis: Are there reproductive benefits associated with their coastal distribution off South Africa?},
 volume = {269},
 year = {2004}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Findlay KP},
 journal = {South African Journal of Wildlife Research},
 pages = {57--62},
 title = {Attitudes and expenditures of whale watchers in Hermanus, South Africa},
 volume = {27},
 year = {1997}
}
,@electronic{8153,
 address = {http://www.iucnredlist.org},
 author = {IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)},
 publisher = {The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 3.1.},
 title = {<i>Eubalaena australis</i>},
 year = {2013}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {IWC},
 journal = {Journal of Cetacean Research and Management},
 pages = {439--461},
 title = {Report of the IWC Workshop on the Assessment of Southern Right whales},
 volume = {14},
 year = {2013}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Postma M, Wege M, Bester MN, van der Merwe DS, de Bruyn PJN},
 journal = {African Zoology},
 pages = {188--193},
 title = {Inshore occurrence of southern right whales (<i>Eubalaena australis</i>) at Subantarctic Marion Island},
 volume = {46},
 year = {2011}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Richards R},
 journal = {New Zealand Journal of Zoology},
 pages = {447--459},
 title = {Past and present distributions of southern right whales (<i>Eubalaena australis</i>)},
 volume = {36},
 year = {2009}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Roux J-P, Braby R, Best PB.},
 title = {Southern right whales off Namibia and their relationship with those off South Africa.},
 year = {2011}
}
,@article{8153,
 author = {Rowntree VJ, McGuinness P, Marshall K, Payne R, Sironi M, Seger J},
 journal = {Marine Mammal Science},
 pages = {99--115},
 title = {Increased harassment of right whales (<i>Eubalaena australis</i>) by kelp gulls (<i>Larus dominicanus</i>) at Península Valdés, Argentina},
 volume = {14},
 year = {1998}
}
,]
Send feedback about this assessment to SANBI

Lead agencies, Partners and Funders

See the partners page